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Cnap._.V..l. Copyright No. 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



Digitized by the Internet Archive 
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http://www.archive.org/details/poultrycrafttextOOrobi 



FARM=POULTRY SERIES. No. 5. 



Poultry - Craft 



A TEXT=BOOK FOR POULTRY KEEPERS. 



Fully Illustrated. 



WHAT TO DO. 

HOW TO DO IT. 



John h. Robinson. 



Completely Indexed for the Convenience of Busy People. 



PUBLISHED BY 

I.'S. JOHNSON & CO., Boston, Mass. 
1899. 



TWO COPI) 



Regis 



47667 

Copyright, 1899, 
BY 

1. S. JOHNSON & CO. 
BOSTON, MASS. 






SECOND COPY, 



Press of S. G. Robinson, 257 Atlantic Ave., Boston. 






PREFACE. 



For those who want to know about poultry keeping, for those who wish 
to learn poultry keeping, and for pottltry keepers who cannot always 
remember things they know at the moment they happen to need them, this 
book was written: to the small army of turiters of permanent and current 
poultry literature, nearly every one of whom has in some way contributed 
to its making, it is respectfully dedicated. 

The growing interest in fine fowls and the widening of the field of profit- 
able operations in poultry culture have created a demand for a book which 
will give to one who thinks of engaging in poultry keeping an intelligent 
understanding of its possibilities and probabilities, whether for pleasure or 
profit, and a comprehensive idea of the ways and means of production and 
distribution of this country's enormous crops of poultry and eggs. Following 
this demand comes another, for a book of elementary instruction in all branches 
of poultry keeping. Separate books to meet these demands would be, in large 
part, duplicates, because before beginning it is necessary one should know, 
though superficially, many things which afterward he must learn thoroughly 
if his work with poultry is to be successful. With systematic, logical arrange- 
ment of the text, and with a complete carefully prepared index it was possible 
to make a book of information for inquirers and instruction for beginners, also 
a book for ready reference on poultry topics. There has long been pressing 
need of such a book. For years the publishers have had frequent calls for a 
book to which a poultry keeper could go for information on any and every 
matter, and find it in an instant. 

It is, perhaps, supei"fluous to say of such a book that it is essentially a com- 
pilation. This is measurably true even of the matter not credited to other 
writers. My work has been to condense and put in convenient form infor- 
mation which by reason of its abundance and the multitude of its sources has 
not been available for those who needed it most, — to give, as it were, the 
composite opinion of sometimes conflicting authorities on each matter treated. 
That conclusions should invariably be correct and every estimate unaffected 
by his personal opinion, would be more than a writer could hope, and more 
than a reader ought to expect ; but, as I have endeavored to state each subject 



iv. PREFA CM. 

treated fairly, honestly, and (as I believe) in accordance with the best interests 
of those for whom the book is written, I feel confident that no one of them 
will find in it statements that will mislead, or advice which he will follow to 
his disadvantage and loss. 

The matter of credits for borrowed matter in a book composed as this is, 
requires particular mention. Only a few of the more important direct quo- 
tations are fully credited. Matter which has been adapted, condensed, and 
rearranged in harmony 'with the scheme of the work, is credited generally to 
the author only — the name of the paper or book from which it is taken not 
being added, because in a number of cases a short paragraph is compiled from 
statements of the same writer in several different books and papers, and to 
give each paper credit would have detracted too much from the simplicity of 
statement sought. Food rations taken from contributions of writers describing 
the methods of others, are credited to the persons using the rations. 

For the rest, while acknowledging a general indebtedness to the poultry 
literature of the day, I would here acknowledge special indebtedness to the 
books and paper consulted most : — to Poultry Culture, Felch ; The Practical 
Poultry Keeper, Wright ; Poultry, McFetridge ; Incubation and Its Natu- 
ral Laws, Cyphers ; The Practical Poultry Grower, Myrick ; Broilers for 
Profit, and A Living From Poultry, Boyer ; Duck Culture, Rankin ; Farm- 
Poultry Doctor, Sanborn ; to files of Farm- Poultry for the views of a great 
number of writers on almost every topic treated ; to the Reliable Poultry 
Journal for matter pertaining to many subjects, but especially for information 
relating to the mating of thoroughbred fowls, and to turkeys, ducks, and geese ; 
to the American Fancier, Poultry Monthly, American Poultry Journal, and 
Poultry Herald for many valuable suggestions ; and to various national and 
state bulletins for information regarding foods and feeding. 

The illustrations not otherwise credited were made for this book, or are 
reproduced from Farm.- Poultry . 

John H. Robinson. 

Waltham, Mass., 1899. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I. 
Poultry Keeping and Poultry Keepers - - - 7 

CHAPTER II. 
Location — Situation - - - - - -17 

CHAPTER III. 
Poultry Houses and Yards - - - - - 23 

CHAPTER IV. 
Poultry Fixtures - - * - - - 53 

CHAPTER V. 

Fowls Described - - - - - - -61 

CHAPTER VI. 
Choosing a Variety — Buying Stock - - - - 81 

CHAPTER VII. 
Foods and Feeding - - - - - 92 

CHAPTER VIII. 
Science in Poultry Feeding .=.... 109 



vi. CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER IX. 
Egg Production - - - - - - -121 

CHAPTER X. 
Principles of Breeding — Selection and Care of Breeding 

Stock ----.... T ^ 

CHAPTER XL 
Hatching and Rearing Chicks - - - - - 16^ 

CHAPTER XII. 
Selling Poultry and Eggs - - - - - -1S6 



CHAPTER XIII. 
Exhibiting Poultry ... 



CHAPTER XV. 



Bantams 



Ducks 



Geese 



CHAPTER XVII. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



Index 



203 



CHAPTER XIV. 

Diseases, Parasites, and Enemies of Fowls ... 209 



217 



CHAPTER XVI. 
Turkeys - - - - - - • -221 



>33 



249 



Poultry Papers - - - - - -258 



2 S9 



POULTRY-CRAFT. 



CHAPTER I. 



Poultry Keeping and Poultry Keepers. 

1. Classification. — Business and pleasure are often combined in poultry 
keeping. This, and the complexity of the relations of the different branches 
of the industry, makes a classification of poultry keepers difficult. The out- 
line presented here will, however, give the reader at a glance an idea of the 
relations of the different branches to each other, and of the principal com- 
binations which occur. 



Poultry 
Keeping. 



For Profit. 



As a business. 

As an employment. 

As an investment. 



Market poultry. 
High class breeding 
and exhibition stock. 



For Pleasure. 



2. Poultry Keeping as a 



is poultry keeping as 



For family use. 
For exhibition. 
For fancy. 

Business. — This 

carried on by those who invest in it their capital and give it their time. The 
last mentioned condition distinguishes it from poultry keeping as an invest- 
ment. Only in recent years has poultry keeping taken a place among 
recognized industries. The bulk of the country's enormous crop of poultry 
products comes from many hundreds of thousands of small producers. The 
number of poultry keepers making a living from the production of eggs and 
poultry is very small compared with the great number of small producers, 
but is rapidly increasing. To make the business successful a man must be an 
expert in the management of fowls, and must have good business judgment, 
with enough business training to make him accurate, methodical and prompt 
in his work and dealings. Many of the successful poultrymen of today were 
not experts when they began. Many learned business methods as their 
establishments grew. One who would make such examples of success the 
excuse for giving his capital, time and labor to an occupation he does not 
understand should remember that, when these men began, the problem of 
profitably keeping fowls in large numbers had not been solved, and successes 
with fowls in small numbers were mostly matters of chance. With rare 
exceptions they began with very limited capital. Lack of capital made it 



S POULTRT- CRA FT. 

quite impossible for their plants to grow beyond their ability to manage them. 
These men were pioneers in poultrying. The records of their progress are 
found in modern books on poultry, and in the files of the poultry journals. 
The results of their work may be seen in up-to-date poultry plants, and in the 
methods in use on such plants. The beginner of today finds sources of 
information and instruction to which his predecessors could not resort. He 
would be foolish, indeed, not to take advantage of such opportunities. A 
man should learn the business before engaging in it on his own account. 
Books and papers are within the reach of all. Practical instruction is more 
difficult to obtain — the difficulty being to some extent due to the fact that 
those who want instruction are so often unwilling to pay for it. Too many 
have thought a few months of their unskilled labor on a poultry farm would 
amply pay for time devoted to teaching them, for losses and damages due to 
their inexperience, and for the opportunity to draw at will on the accumulated 
knowledge of an expert poultryman. Those qualified to give instruction will 
not take pupils on such terms. 

3. How Much Income. — Business Risks. — A living from poultry is 
surer to one who makes it his business than are profits from poultry to one 
investing in a poultry plant to be conducted by another. To give a definite 
idea of the amount to be annually realized from a plant of any given capacity, 
would be as impossible as to estimate in advance the annual profits in any 
business. People do make such estimates ; but, how often are they right? It 
may be said, however, that except in a few rare instances, poultry keeping is 
not a lucrative business. Very few poultrymen are making more than a good 
living. Whether one can make a living from poultry, will depend on his fit- 
ness for the business, his judgment in choosing a location, and on the effects 
of influences by which, like every other business, this is affected. The poul- 
try keeper is subject to all ordinary business risks. Those who go into this 
business should not fail to consider ; that, 

Success, the success that brings a living from poultry, means work — 
hand work, head work, and hard work. This is a condition not peculiar to 
poultry keeping ; that', 

Prices fluctuate, and profits vary accordingly ; and that, 

Causes beyond a 7nan , s control may cause his failure, or delay his success. 

Those points need to be emphasized, because of some serious misconcep- 
tions which have arisen in regard to poultry keeping as compared with other 
businesses. It is unique in some respects, but not in being exempt from 
influences affecting business in general. 

4. More About Profits. — More detailed statements concerning profits 
can now be given. Having read the last paragraph, no one need misunder- 
stand the statements in this. Experienced poultrymen know about what they 
can count on under favorable circumstances. They also know how to make 



POULTR T- CRA FT. 9 

the best of unfavorable circumstances. If they see loss coming in one place 
they make special efforts to offset it by securing extra profit in another. The 
average profit on eggs, at market prices, is one dollar per year per hen. This 
is what a skilled poultryman considers a safe figure. One dollar a head is 
approximately what skill secures from large flocks — for eggs alone. The 
best authority on broilers places the average profit per bird at not over twenty 
cents. On eggs for hatching, sold at two dollars a sitting, the profit will 
rarely exceed a dollar a sitting; often will not reach that figure. A breeder 
whose trade is in stock birds selling at one to five dollars per head, will aver- 
age about two dollars per bird. If he has managed his stock right nearly all 
of this will be profit. It is easily seen that at these figures there is no "big 
money" in the business. In fact, in market poultry alone one does not find 
it easy to make a living unless his" plant is large and much of the work is done 
by cheap labor. The profitable combination for a small plant is one which 
with a stock of thoroughbred poultry averaging for the year three hundred to 
four hundred hens, yields a profit of $300 to $400 for market eggs ; about 
$100 for eggs for hatching ; $150 to $200 for market poultry; and $200 to 
$300 for breeding stock — in all $750 to $1,000. Something like this is what 
a fairly skillful poultryman without special reputation as a breeder of high 
class stock may expect from a plant on which he can do all the work, and 
which, if he constructs the buildings himself, will cost anywhere from $1,000 
to $1,500 in addition to the cost of the land and the first cost of the stock. It 
is not safe to figure an income on the basis of the large profits sometimes 
reported for single flocks, or for a season's work under exceptionally favorable 
conditions. Nor is it wise for a beginner to count on profits as large as those 
of the more successful poultryman, which are often much greater than the 
figures here given. When one begins to see the big prices and big profits 
coming his way it is time enough to begin estimates with the big figures. 
Though not to be used as bases of estimates, the prices of high class stock 
merit attention as showing what is possible when ability to breed good stock, 
and reputation as a breeder, have been acquhed. Prices for eggs range from 
$3 to $5 per sitting; $5, $10, $15, are quite common prices for fowls for 
breeding and for the smaller exhibitions. Prices of birds "fit" for the larger 
shows range from the figures given up to $25, $35, $50, $100. Single birds 
have been sold as high as $250. Just how much of these various amounts is 
profit, it is not possible to even approximately average, for this class of 
breeders never make their accounts public as market poultry men so often do. 
The expenses of exhibiting and advertising are considerable. Yet the pro- 
portion of profit to price is greater than when sales are made at small figures, 
and, generally, the higher the price the greater the proportion of profit. To 
the limited number who can get these prices, poultry keeping, whether an 
exclusive business, a side issue, or a recreation, is very profitable. The 
beginner, while disregarding them in his present calculations, may look 
forward to them as the rewards of special ability. 



i o POUL TR T- CRAFT. 

5. Is There Danger of Overdoing the Business? — The United States 
imports annually about one million dozens of eggs. This fact is often cited 
to show that the business is in no danger of being overdone. It is assumed 
that, as long as eggs are imported the domestic supply must be inadequate. 
A comparison of the amount of imports with the total home product, shows 
that this assumption is a fallacy. A million dozen is less than one-tenth of 
one per cent of the (estimated) total annual egg crop. In effect the nation 
produces all the poultry and eggs it uses, and consumes all it produces. Dur- 
ing a considerable portion of each year the markets are glutted with stock of 
inferior quality. The kind of poultry keeping which produces such stock is 
already overdone. On the other hand, the demand for stock of superior 
quality is in advance of the supply, and there is every reason to believe that 
this condition will continue for a long time. A poultryman making a wise 
choice of location with reference to this demand, and producing articles of the 
grade it calls for, need have no fears of overstocking his market. In the trade 
in breeding and exhibition stock, conditions are different. Successful sales 
depend much on reputation and skillful advertising. Lacking these, breeders 
often fail to sell really fine stock of varieties in good demand. 

6. Comparison of the Different Branches of Poultry Keeping. — 

Attention has already been called to the advisability of combining branches 
of the industry. As a matter of fact, poultry keepers doing an exclusive 
business cannot keep to one branch. A living from poultry requires com- 
binations, and some branches depend on others. The egg farmer who rears 
his layers, as nearly all do, has large quantities of poultry to sell. The 
broiler farmer who produces on his own plant the eggs for his incubators — 
and this is the only way to get reliable eggs in quantity — has eggs to sell 
during a part of the year. Besides, broiler raising is a business for a season. 
It has never been made profitable on a large scale as an exclusive business. 
In connection with an egg farm, or as winter employment for those whose 
regular occupation leaves them idle in winter, it pays. Sales of eggs for 
hatching are limited to a few months in the spring. The bulk of the trade in 
breeding stock is done in the first three months of the year. Expenses keep 
steadily on through every twelvemonth. So it comes about that, though one 
may start business intending to confine himself to a single branch, he is 
obliged to make a combination like that suggested in ^[4, in order to 
handle his stock to best advantage and have a regular income. He may give 
relatively more or less attention to the various branches than is suggested 
there, but that combination, in some proportions, is the one to which a 
poultry business, large or small, inevitably tends. 

7. Poultry Keeping as an Adjunct of Another Business. — The 

greater number of those deriving a considerable income from poultry keeping 
conduct it as an adjunct of another business, as farming, fruit growing, 



POULTR T- CRA FT. i 1 

gardening, dairying. The reasons for this are similar to those which lead to 
diversified farming. It is often found that a stock of poultry can be handled, 
in connection with some other occupation, with greater profit than would 
come from giving more attention to the other occupation, or from an exclusive 
poultry business. A good example is where a milkman finds his income too 
small for his living, and the demand for milk not great enough to justify 
increasing his herd. In such a case a man of judgment combines with his 
established business another, profits from which will round out his income. 
Poultry keeping is well adapted to such combinations, and is well woi'th the 
consideration of anyone so situated that he must combine two occupations. 
It should be added that such combinations ought to be made only in the 
extreme cases ; that is, where the business is so small that one can give per- 
sonal supervision to every part of it ; or where, as on some large stock or fruit 
farms, there is an opportunity to keep fowls on ground used partly for other 
purposes, and on a scale large enough to warrant the employment of a skillful 
poultry man. Attempts to combine poultry keeping with other occupations 
when there is more work than the proprietor can personally do or oversee, 
and less than will make it worth while to engage an expert poultryman,, 
almost uniformly result in losses. 

8. Poultry Keeping as an Employment. — As an employment poul- 
try keeping offers, to both skilled and unskilled labor, opportunities similar to 
those afforded in other lines of animal and plant culture. Wages for skilled 
labor vary, depending on the size of the plant, the ability of the man, the 
amount of responsibility assumed. A fair average of the wages paid poultry- 
men who attend to and partially supervise the work on a plant, but have noth- 
ing to do with financial management, is $60 a month, or $40 and board. 
Those who take complete management receive more — sometimes much more. 
Unskilled laborers on poultry plants are paid, in any given locality, about the 
same as farm and dairy hands in that locality. One wishing to estimate the 
ins and outs of poultry keeping as an employment, may consider it in this 
way : In a year an expert poultryman will earn about the same as the average 
mechanic of the same relative degree of skill. He will have steadier work at 
a lower rate of wages, will work longer hours, have less leisure. Thei'e will 
be little danger of his being at any time long out of work. The demand for 
expert poultrymen is likely to continue in excess of the supply. 

9. The Poultry Business as an Investment. — Many people are 
looking to poultry keeping as an investment for surplus funds. The profit- 
ableness of such ventures will depend — first, on the judgment shown in select- 
ing a location, determining what branches of the business are to be followed, 
and choosing a manager ; next, though to a less extent than in the case of 
one whose all is invested in his business, on the influence of the conditions 
mentioned in ^[3. The man who has capital to back him can weather 



1 2 PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

adverse storms which swamp the poultryman of limited means. No one 
should invest money in a poultry plant until he has enough general knowledge 
of the business to enable him to make an intelligent estimate of the advantages 
and disadvantages of different locations, considered with reference to the 
branch of the business to be followed ; of the qualifications of applicants for 
the position of manager ; and, of the probabilities of his investment proving 
satisfactory. Most of those who have made losing investments in poultry have 
put their money out first, and acquired the knowledge that would have enabled 
them to invest wisely afterward. Many have been led into rash ventures in 
poultry keeping by the belief that large profits would be realized from the 
outset. It usually requires several years to thoroughly equip a poultry plant 
and place it on a paying basis. The history of most large plants shows that 
this has been the case, even when abundance of capital was at command. 
The man with capital makes large plans, which it requires time to carry out. 
Practical poultry keeping as an investment must be on a large scale ; on a 
small scale, even a prosperous business could not be expected to do more than 
make a living for the manager and his assistants. Some of the most" profitable 
plants of this class combine market and ' ' fancy " poultry breeding. There 
are numerous instances of persons of means breeding fowls both for pleasure 
and as an investment, taking a very active interest in the stock, but leaving 
the actual management of the poultry in the hands of a manager. An invest- 
ment of this kind is probably the most profitable that can be made. A study 
of the subject of poultry culture as set forth in this book will give a good basis 
of knowledge of the matters one needs to know before investing. Further 
information should be sought in current poultry journals. The information 
derived from these sources should be supplemented by careful examinations of 
up-to-date poultry plants, and a study of the conditions, both general and local, 
of production and consumption of poultry products. 

10. How to Learn Poultry Keeping. — Poultry keeping must be 
learned just as any other trade is learned — preferably by going to work for a 
poultryman. Opportunities to learn in this way are not numerous. One 
finding such an opportunity must expect to begin as an apprentice or unskilled 
laborer. If diligent and faithful to his employer's interests, he will soon be 
advanced to work involving responsibility and giving practice in poultry 
management. While thus engaged he should be a close student of poultry 
literature, and should make the most of every opportunity to visit the plants 
and observe the methods of other poultrymen. This course is recommended 
even for those who have the capital to put into a small plant. Two years of 
practical work under a competent instructor are worth more to anyone than a 
period twice as long passed in gaining experience independently. A very 
important consequence of taking this course is that the man with small capital 
risks none of it, (and may even add to what he had), before learning how to 
use it to best advantage. After two years of practical work, a bright man of 



POULTR T- CRA FT. i 3 

mature mind ought to be in a position to know how to make best use of his 
capital, and also how to make a business which he managed alone or with a 
little cheap help, pay expenses almost from the start. The course just 
outlined is that by which expert knowledge and skill are obtained at least 
expense. It is not always practicable. There are other ways. A partner- 
ship may be formed with an expert poultryman who thus becomes his partner's 
instructor. An expert may be engaged for a time as manager and adviser. 
After such arrangements as these the next best plan is to begin keeping fowls 
in a small way, increasing the flock as ability to manage larger numbers 
profitably is developed. In this one needs to be careful not to overstep the 
limits his experience places to profitable work. To those who have the 
capital the temptation to go too fast is very strong. Until one has thoroughly 
mastered the elements of poultry keeping, until he is "fit" to succeed, he 
ought to proceed as cautiously as if he had no capital but the profit from the 
flock.* 

11. Beginning With Small Capital. — Without Capital. — A poultry 
business may be started on a very small capital, practically without capital, if 
one has other occupation which, while furnishing the means of living, leaves 
him time to properly care for his fowls. By careful management the gradually 
increasing income from the flock may be added to the capital until the operations 
are large enough to make poultrying the principal thing. The combination of 
circumstances favoring a growth of this kind is rare. For those who think of 
beginning in this way the caution : Be sure of yozir ground before making 
any move involving expense, needs to be repeated. In small beginnings of 
poultry keeping as an adjunct to dairying, gardening, etc., it is not usually 
difficult to make time to care for the poultry, and the poultry plant can easily 
make rapid growth. The important things in developing a plant begun in a 
small way, are : 

Keep no more stock than can be given proper care. 
Keep out of debt. 

12. Poultry for Pleasure. — For Family Use. — When fowls are 
kept for a definite purpose, and that not the profit to be made from them, it is 
not wrong to say they are kept for pleasure. This statement holds good even 
when fowls primarily kept for pleasure afford some profit. Most "family" 
hens are kept for pleasure, the pleasure their owners get from producing their 

* Note. — Those who, wishing to learn poultry keeping, do not meet favorable oppor- 
tunities, are advised that it is in their power to materially assist the movement for special 
instruction in poultry keeping at the agricultural colleges. This they can do by showing 
those in charge of these institutions that a strong demand for such instruction exists. 
At the Rhode Island State Agricultural College a course of study in poultry culture was 
given in January, 1898. This was designed as the initial step in a movement to make 
instruction in poultry keeping a feature of the work of that college. Other states will 
follow the example of Rhode Island as fast as those interested make it clear that a course, 
once established, will be sustained. 



14 POUL TR T- CRA FT. 

own eggs and poultry, and having these articles strictly and reliably fresh. In 
many instances family hens are from a dollars and cents standpoint unprofitable. 
It costs more to produce the eggs and poultry used than it would to buy them — 
a state of affairs for which there is no good excuse, for very little skill in 
handling fowls is required to make such small flocks pay their way. Not 
many families are so situated that, wishing to keep a few fowls, they are unable 
to do so. As will be shown in succeeding chapters, there are breeds of fowls 
specially suited to close quarters. A little plot of ground, a little poultry 
house, a little flock of hens, and a little love for domestic animals, make a 
combination which will give the poor man in a city, at trifling cost, luxuries 
for which his rich neighbor is glad to pay liberally. 

13. Poultry for Pleasure. — For Exhibition. — For Fancy. — 

Though not the most important, this is the most prominent feature of poultry 
interests. It is so intimately associated with the business of breeding high 
class stock that it would puzzle many breeders to say whether they were in 
poultry for fancy or for business. The majority of fanciers, however, are in 
"the fancy" for pleasure. Pleasure means to one, winning at the exhibitions ; 
to another, the possession of fine fowls ; to others, the acquisition of knowl- 
edge of the laws of breeding and the exercise of skill in mating for special 
results. Many keep fowls simply that they may have some restful pursuit not 
in line with their regular work, to occupy mind and body in leisure hours. 
Poultry fancying is more than a mere amusement ; it is a useful amusement, 
a recreation having a recognized moral and educational value — and, aside 
from the fact that it makes "business" for many people, the poultry fancy has 
an industrial influence in giving the initial impetus in the development of 
economic poultry interests. Everywhere general improvement in common 
fowls, and increased profits from fowls, have followed the introduction of 
" fancy " fowls. The claim of some fanciers that this improvement was due 
to the diffusion of the blood of their high class stock, can be only partially 
admitted. Undoubtedly new blood has done much, but practical illustrations 
of the advantages of good care and systematic breeding for a definite purpose, 
have done more. The "fancy's " best contribution to the growth of industrial 
poultry culture has been along the line of suggestive teaching. The real 
usefulness of pleasurable poultry keeping needs to be better and more univer- 
sally understood. It is equally desirable that fanciers should not make public 
extravagant estimates of the benefits they confer, and that the true value and 
dignity of poultry keeping for pleasure should be recognized by all poultrymen 
and by the general public. 

14. Women as Poultry Keepers. — The bulk of the supply of poultry 
products comes from flocks cared for principally by women. On farms the 
cai-e of the fowls is usually left to the farmer's wife or daughter. In towns 
the absence of the men from home during the working hours leaves the care 
of the poultry mostly to the women, even when the men take an interest in it. 



POULTR T- CRA FT. 1 5 

Whether women are better fitted than men to care for fowls, is a question 
needing no discussion. The whole subject may be briefly summed up in the 
statement : Some people (men and women) make capable poultry keepers, 
and some do not. There are quite large poultry plants conducted by women. 
As a rule, poultry keeping on a scale to make a living for a family, is beyond 
a woman's strength. Still, a woman who can press some male member of 
the family into service to do occasional heavy jobs about the hen house, can 
handle several hundred hens, and make the profit from them a substantial part 
of the family income. Many women have been very successful as fanciers 
and breeders of high class stock ; but that branch of poultry culture seems to 
have less attraction for women than for men. Under the conditions noted at 
the beginning of this paragraph, women assume the care of poultry through 
force of circumstances and custom: When they take up poultry keeping from 
choice it is usually from one or more of these reasons : that they may have 
poultry supplies for home use ; or, profits from the hens for pin money ; or, 
regular light outdoor work as a diversion from the monotony of housework. 
Thus with them poultry keeping is really an adjunct to their occupation as 
housewives. It is notable that, keeping fowls in this way, women are 
generally wiser than men, in keeping flocks no larger than they can care for, 
and in keeping out of debts on the hens' account. To this extent, if no 
further, women as a class are the better poultry keepers, and more often make 
small flocks pay. 

15. Poultry Keeping for Invalids. — Invalids are attracted to poultry 
keeping as an occupation, thinking it one of the least laborious of outdoor 
callings. The all-important thing for invalids engaging in it is to keep the 
work within the limits of their strength. Unless this is done the work will do 
them more harm than good. There is little really heavy work about a poultry 
yard, but the work requires constant attention, is confining, and to some 
becomes monotonous. An invalid whose sickness is such, in kind or degree, 
that he could not give the fowls regular attention in all kinds of weather, 
ought not to engage in poultry keeping expecting to make it profitable. Nor 
should one unable by reason of physical disability to make a living at another 
occupation, hope to make one from this. The work on a poultry plant large 
enough to make a living for a family is not " light" work in any other sense 
than that it does not require great muscular exertion. It keeps an active man 
very busy through days of long hours. Invalids engaging in poultry keeping 
on a scale suited to their strength may make something — some part of a 
living, from it, while the work builds them up physically, and can be gradually 
developed into an extensive business yielding a living income. 

16. Poultry Keeping for Children. — A child, — especially a boy — 
having reached such age that he can be trusted, (with a little oversight from 
some older person), to care for a flock of fowls, ought to be encouraged to take 
an interest in domestic fowls, and, if circumstances permit, should be given a 



1 6 POULTR Y- CRA FT. 

few hens. It is a well established fact, that an interest, as care-taker, in 
domestic animals, and particularly the smaller and weaker ones, helps to 
develop a humane character. Fowls can be kept where other domestic 
animals could not. The ownership of a flock of fowls gives the young 
poultryman opportunities to take some very practical lessons, but if the work 
is to have the best effect, parents should take interest enough in it and in 
poultry in general to fit them to act as guides and advisers. 



IS^E 



r ^^W^% 



PO UL TR 2'- CRAFT. 



17 



CHAPTER II. 



Location .— Situation . 

" 17. Definitions of Terms. — By the location of a poultry plant, is 
meant its position with reference to markets, and as determined or affected 
by the general climatic conditions. Situation means the position of a 
poultry house, or the buildings constituting a poultry plant, as determined 
by those things which directly affect fowls, or increase or diminish the labor 
of caring for them. Every poultry keeper has to consider matters relating to 
the availability of particular sites for poultry houses. The question of 
location hardly needs attention from those not keeping poultry for profit. 

18. Locating for Business. — Poultry Farming. — A good location is 
as necessary in poultry keeping as in any business. A wrong choice of 
location has caused many a failure. The first, and most important thing 
to consider is the matter of markets. This subject must be examined from 
several points of view. One whose capital is large enough to equip a large 
plant, and keep it running until it pays expenses, should decide first what 
branch, or branches, of the business are to be followed, and make choice of 
a location accordingly. If market poultry ing is to be a specialty, he must 
locate within quick shipping distance of a large city, and should give the 
preference to a district containing many towns and small cities. In sections 
where a large part of the population is engaged in agriculture, the supply of 
eggs and poultry is, during the greater part of the year, in excess of the 
demand. As nearly all of this supply comes from small flocks kept under 
such conditions that the profits from each flock, in effect, equal the proceeds 
of the flock, agricultural districts are usually poor locations for special 
market poultry farming. It might be said that, except in the most densely 
populated districts, in proportion as poultry keeping is made profitable by the 
general farmers in any locality it becomes unprofitable to the specialist. 
This has been well illustrated, within a few years, in the state of Kansas, 
where, in the face of a notable increase of the poultry product of the state, it 
was reported that many of the large plants near Kansas City had gone out of 
business, unable to continue at a profit in competition with the farmers, 
whose output of eggs and poultry was year after year increasing in quantity 
and improving in quality. The poultry farmer must have a nearby market, 
where strictly fresh eggs and fancy dressed poultry will always command a 
premium. Thus it is seen that in this country the exclusive poultry farm can 
be made profitable only in limited areas. To be as exact as possible — it 



1 8 POUL TR T- CRA FT. 

would be unwise to attempt that line of business beyond quick shipping 
distance of a large city on the Atlantic or Pacific coast, except in mining 
districts or near large health or pleasure resorts. In all the large coast cities, 
and in adjacent cities and towns, the demand for the best poultry products is 
large enough to remove risk of an overstocked market. In the other places 
ranked as good locations for poultry farming, the demand is more limited, 
and is sometimes active but a short season each year. Those considering 
such locations should thoroughly investigate the conditions of local demand 
and supply before making a decision. 

After the question of a market for products, comes the question of the 
market for the purchase of supplies. This is of little importance in most 
localities favorable to poultry farming. Yet there are places where, while 
prices of eggs and poultry are so high as to tempt investment, a plant would 
prove unprofitable because of the high prices of supplies and the uncertainty 
of being able to procure them as needed. Before passing this question one 
should give it as much attention as w r ill prevent a mistake from neglect of it. 

It will be found that in the case under consideration the matter of climate is 
unimportant, because there is no place in the areas adapted to large poultry 
farming where the climate is unfavorable. The poultry keeper may need to 
consider it for himself. As for the fowls, he will find that they quickly 
become acclimated anywhere. 

19. Locating for Business. — Breeding High Class Stock. — In this 
case greater latitude of choice is possible. It is desirable, though not 
absolutely necessary, that all conditions should be favorable to the best 
development of fowls. It is, in reality, more a question of situation than of 
location. Situation is of greater importance. The business in fine poultry 
and eggs is done principally through the postoffice and the express companies. 
Wherever located, a breeder having good stock of a variety in demand, and 
properly advertising it, will not often find his location a handicap. It has 
been, and still is, true that in some sections high class poultry sells more freely 
than elsewhere. The interest in thoroughbred fowls spreads so rapidly that 
communities which a few years ago bought little high priced stock, now buy 
a great deal. Wherever anyone undertakes the breeding of thoroughbred 
stock, whether for market or fancy, the interest awakened by his venture 
gradually creates a demand. As it takes some time to establish a trade in this 
line, the beginner being always at a great disadvantage in competition with 
breeders of established reputation, it is often a good move on his part to locate 
where he will for a few years have little competition for the local trade, 
which, though small, must at first be his principal dependence. 

20. Location. — The Combination of Market and Fancy Poultry — 

These two branches have so far been treated separately. In actual practice 
thev are oftenest combined. Many poultry farmers use thoroughbred stock 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 



J 9 



exclusively. Some have quite a large trade in the best grades of their stock, 
sold for breeding purposes at several times the prices for market poultry. A 
few whose principal interest is in practical poultry are successful exhibitors 
of standard fowls, and sell exhibition birds and birds for breeding exhibition 
stock at high prices. On the other hand, every extensive breeder of high 
class stock has to dispose of a considerable part of what he produces at market 
prices. As long as this can be regarded as a by-product, he need not consider 
the market for it when selecting a location ; but, if he must depend on it for 
a considerable part of his income, it may be best to give market advantages 
great weight when deciding where to locate. The combination of exhibition, 
breeding and market stock, is generally the best for those in the business for 
profit ; especially is this true in the case of a plant located outside of the areas 
adapted to exclusive market poultrying. Such a combination can be made 
profitable near almost any large town. 

21. Buying Land for a Poultry Plant. — The plant should not be 
built on rented ground. The rent adds to current expenses. Removal means 
either the sacrifice of the greater part of the value of the improvements, or 
expense, and damage to buildings in moving. The amount of land needed 
for the plant depends as much on the system of housing used as on the number 
of fowls kept. A large stock kept on the colony plan will occupy a good 
sized farm. On most of the large plants the fowls are yarded, being housed 
in long sectional houses. This system brings a large stock upon a small area. 
From five to ten acres is ordinarily enough land for a poultryman. As far as 
suitability for poultry keeping goes, the soil need not be fertile. Often a tract 
admirably adapted to poultry keeping is quite worthless for other purposes. 
Nevertheless, it is not good policy to buy land that cannot be improved to 
make comfortable, pleasant home surroundings, for the poultryman's home 
and place of business are necessarily together. Another thing to consider in 
buying is, that poultry keeping and fruit raising or gardening are often 
profitably combined, and it is worth while to take account of the possibility 
of its proving advisable at some future time to make such a combination. 
Buying a place on time, is as bad a mistake as renting land. The beginner's 
profits cannot stand such drains. 

22. Adapting Business to Location. — For nearly all who begin in a 
small way with the expectation of making a living, ultimately, from poultry 
: — and for, perhaps, all who make poultrying an adjunct of another 
occupation, the question of location is, from the first, a closed question. 
They already have a site which they think might be used to advantage for 
poultry. The statements in the preceding paragraphs will suggest to such 
persons the branches of the business best suited to their circumstances. Thus, 
on a site suitable for poultry within one of the areas where exclusive market 
poultry keeping can always be made profitable, eggs and poultry will from 



2o POUL TR T- CRA FT. 

the start furnish the quickest, surest, most evenly distributed returns ; while in 
other localities it will be better to make such a combination as the demands 
of the market, the amount of capital on hand, and the skill of the poultryman 
allow. At least a slight general acquaintance with the whole subject of 
poultry keeping is necessary before one can decide what to do and what not 
to do in any given case. 

23. Situation. — General Remarks. — Though certain surroundings are 
more agreeable to fowls than others, and under favoring conditions they are 
handled at least cost for food and labor, there is nothing in the nature of 
domestic fowls to prevent their being thrifty and profitable in circumstances 
quite the reverse of those most agreeable. Indeed, it is coming to be well 
understood that, within reasonable limits, restraints on the natural tendencies 
of fowls are beneficial. Like all domestic animals, they can be accustomed 
to great changes of habit, as well as of climate. The breeds of fowls differ 
somewhat in adaptability to artificial conditions ; but as a rule the welfare of 
the fowls depends more on the poultryman than on the nature of fowls or 
of their surroundings. Farms and large village lots furnish the best 
opportunities for poultry keeping. Fowls can be kept and, even, a few 
thrifty young reared on narrow city lots — sometimes in very close quarters. 
It has often been said that fowls can be kept wherever human beings can live. 
While not literally true, this statement is not far wrong — if its application is 
limited to fowls kept for pleasure. Whether fowls are kept for pleasure or 
profit, successful management consists in rightly balancing natural and 
artificial conditions, providing by art those things in which the situation is 
deficient, or when that is not possible, devising ways of compensating for 
nature's defects. Just here is where it is found that ways of caring for fowls 
for best results differ in different localities and situations. The needs of 
fowls do not vary ; the resources of places do. In different places poultry 
keepers have to do different things to supply the same needs. This is all 
there is in the oft-repeated assertions that fowls cannot be handled in the west 
as in the east, in the south as in the north, in mountain countries as at the 
sea level. The poultryman in unusual circumstances must study his sur- 
roundings and their effects upon fowls, and vary treatment as he finds nature 
doing more or less in any direction ; and he ought always to follow the 
general rules for caring for fowls under ordinary conditions, until by careful 
study of his situation he sees reason for making change in treatment or diet. 
He should not do extraordinary things without knowing why he does them. 
Unusual circumstances demand thoughtfulness and prudence, not eccentricity. 
The poultry keeper for pleasure can go as far as he likes in making good the 
natural defects of a site. One in business for profit needs the advantage of 
a situation with few defects. It is folly to undertake keeping fowls for profit 
on a site where the "outs" are so many that the making of a living ia 
rendered unnecessarily laborious. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 21 

24. Situation. — Soils. — A sandy soil suits poultry best. A wet, heavy, 
clay soil is most unsuitable. A soil containing much alkali is to be avoided 
because of its bad effect on the skin and plumage. A sandy site is, in general, 
well drained, and is easily kept clean. Droppings falling on a porous sandy 
soil are at once deodorized by absorption of their liquids, the remaining solids 
are disintegrated and carried below the surface by rains ; falling on clayey soil 
they form a crust on the surface, making it very foul. Between light sandy 
and heavy clay soils is a wide range and many kinds of soil, varying in 
suitability for poultry keeping as they approach to or depart from these 
extremes. Fowls are oftenest kept on medium soils, these being most 
common. Such soils are easily purified by occasionally spading or plowing 
the yards. Sometimes the same end is gained, and a regular supply of green 
food furnished the fowls, by an arrangement of alternate yards, which makes 
it possible to grow a green crop in one yard while the fowls are confined to 
the other. When fowls are kept on rather heavy soil, the surface should be 
graded to secure complete surface drainage, and as much as possible of the 
runs should be in permanent grass. It is advised to remove the earth in the 
house floors, replacing it with a few inches of sand or sandy loam over a bed 
of gravel. Made ground composed largely of rubbish, is most unsuitable for 
poultry. In hot damp weather the decomposed matter breeds disease germs, 
which cause epidemics. This condition persists for a long time after the 
making of the ground, and accounts for many mysterious outbreaks of disease. 
Ground of this kind is common in large cities and their suburbs. Poultry 
keepers should avoid it on their own account, and because of its possible effect 
on fowls. 

25. Situation. — Drainage. — The site of a poultry house or plant should 
always be well drained. Water standing at the surface attracts filth. On 
ill-drained land one has bad footing while doing his work, and the work is 
consequently much harder. These are the things which first become apparent 
in a poorly drained place. More important than either, is the fact that the 
poultry house cannot be kept as dry as it should ; any degree of continuous 
dampness is objectionable, f A high site, hill, knoll, or slope is usually 
recommended, but ground level or in a depression is not altogether objection- 
able if well drained. 

26. Situation. — Exposure. — Shelter.— Poultrymen prefer a site on a 
gentle slope facing south or southeast. It is desirable that the buildings 
receive the sunlight as long as possible on winter days, and be sheltered from 
cold winds. The lack of such natural advantage in a situation may be made 
good, as far as shelter from wind goes, by growing evergreens where they 
will serve as wind-breaks. A house placed where it does not get the sunlight 
is unfit for fowls. If it gets the sun for only a few hours daily it may be 
used. In such case it is most satisfactory to keep fowls only for family use, 



22 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



replacing the stock each year. Stock birds soon degenerate away from the 
sun, and young stock makes but sickly growth without sunlight. In placing 
poultry buildings the most should be made of every natural advantage of the 
situation. Convenience to his house and for doing the work are points for 
the poultryman to consider, but ought never to be allowed to influence him 
when they conflict with matters essential to the welfare of the flock. 




PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 23 



CHAPTER III. 



Poultry Houses and Yards. 

27. General Remarks. — It is important that fowls be properly housed. 
This can be accomplished without using elaborate or expensive buildings. A 
poultry house should be free from drafts, so constructed that the inner 
temperature will vary slowlv with fluctuations in the weather. The windows 
should be so placed that the sun will shine into the house for a few hours 
daily, — in winter, the longer the better. These things, and a suitable 
situation, are essential. The permanent lack of any one of them invariably 
affects the health of the fowls, sooner or later bringing disease and loss. A 
house furnishing the conditions essential to the welfare of its tenants may be 
unsightly to the eye, inconvenient for the attendant, yet cannot be regarded as 
unsuitable for fowls. A person is sometimes so situated that if he would have 
a few fowls he must make shift to keep them in quarters not specially suited to 
poultry keeping. If the essential conditions specified can be secured, the 
fowls can do very well. If the conditions named cannot be secure^l, it is better 
not to try to keep poultry. The inconveniences incident to caring for fowls in 
makeshift and poorly planned houses are matters of small moment to the 
amateur who gives his fowls but little of his time. To one who keeps fowls 
on an increasing scale such inconveniences soon become costly annoyances, 
and the buildings, often, must be completely remodeled. It is therefore 
always best for a poultryman to consider carefully before beginning to build 
or to make alterations ; and a beginner, particularly, should make himself so 
familiar with the principles of poultry house construction, the different styles 
of houses, the methods of platting poultry plants, that whatever the scale of his 
future operations, each building erected may be built to stand many years 
without alteration and without other repairs than those made necessary by the 
ordinary wear and tear of weather and daily use. Nearly all the designs given 
in this chapter are modeled after, or adapted from, plans used and approved 
by practical poultrymen. (The exceptions merit attention, embodying as they 
do some ideas approved by the experience of poultry keepers, though not yet 
tested). The buildings described have been selected as furnishing typical 
examples of different styles of poultry houses. As a comparison of the plans 
will show, many of the details may be applied in any or all the various styles 
of houses. The greatest possible variety has been introduced in the minor 
details of the drawings, to avoid an unnecessary multiplication of illustrations. 
Having selected the style of house which suits him best, anyone intelligent 
enough to build a poultry house can adapt to it such minor features of other 



2 4 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 



designs as his situation and his means demand. All the drawings show neat 
buildings, devoid of ornament. In nearly all the plans given it is designed 
that the ground floor shall be of earth, which is by all odds the best floor 
material, and should be used whenever that is practicable. 

28. A Cheap House for a Town Lot. — In Fig. i is shown a simple 




1 



%tot. 



4t 



J ii iN 



3, 



/vtstS 



J faif 



YAff.D. 



Fig. 1. A Cheap Small Poultry House. A. — perspective. B. — ground plan. 

design for a cheap city poultry house, io ft. square on the ground ; height 
in front 8 ft., in rear 5 ft. Such a house will accommodate from ten to 
twenty hens, according to breed, amount of yard room, etc. The only openings 
are the door in the east side, the window in the south front, and the small door 
giving access to the yard ; the front and east side to be boarded up and down 
with boards 1 ft. wide, dressed on one side ; the joints between the boards to 
be covered with battens. The west and north sides and the roof are of boards 
covered with building paper. 

Materials.* 
The frame of the building requires nine pieces of 2 x 3 scantling, 10 ft. 
long ; four of these are for the sills, two for plates, (front and rear), two to go 
paralled to sills and halfway up north and west sides, and one from which to 
cut the short horizontal pieces for middle of front and top of door opening ; 
three pieces 2x3 scantling 16 ft. long, from which to cut four studs, each 8 
ft. long for front corners and sides of window opening, tw T o 5 ft. studs for 
rear corners, and two 3 ft. pieces for top and bottom of window opening ; one 
piece of 2 x 3 scantling 14 ft. long from which to cut one 7 ft. stud to go at 
north side of door opening, and the horizontal piece for the middle of the east 

*Note. — To give full lists of materials and suggestions in regard to using them for 
all the plans given in this chapter, is out of the question. Lists of materials are, 
however, given in a number of cases. In connection with this simple plan full instruc- 
tions are given as to lumber used, what to order, and how to cut it to advantage. 
Occasional suggestions will be given as seems expedient with other plans. In all designs 
the construction is very simple ; and having learned how to proceed in one case, the 
reader can easily apply his knowledge to any other. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 25 

side ; three pieces 2x4 scantling 22 ft. long, from which to cut six rafters each 
about 10 ft. 6 in. long. (If it is desired they may be 1 1 ft. long, and allowed to 
project over front and rear walls. Sometimes dimension lumber over 20 ft. in 
length costs more per 1000 ft. than when in lengths of 20 ft. or less. When 
that is the case it is as well to use 12 ft. stuff for the rafters ; or, for strictest 
economy in construction, to make the building six inches narrower than in the 
plan, and use 10 ft. stuff' for rafters). Boards 16 ft. long should be used for the 
front and east side. For the long boards on the front 16 ft. boards cut in two 
are used without waste. A little ingenuity in cutting will leave very little 
waste in using 16 ft. stuff' for the east side. Ten 16 ft. boards 1 ft. wide will be 
needed. The boards for the back, west side and roof, which are to be covered 
with building paper, may be either rough lumber or surfaced on one side. 
They need not be of equal widths, though of course there is no objection to 
that, except on the score of cost, selected widths often costing more. For the 
west side boards 16 ft. long should be used, and for the roof and rear wall 
boards 10 ft. long. Three boards of matched flooring, each 12 ft. long, will be 
needed for the door. There is needed then : 

Dimension lumber : — 

9 pieces 2 x 3 in. scantling 10 ft. long; 3 pieces 2x3 in. scantling 16 ft. long; 

1 piece 2x3 in. scantling 14 ft. long; 3 pieces 2x4 in. scantling 22 ft. long : 

109 sq. ft. 
Rough sheathing: — 

160 sq. ft. boards 10 ft. long; 70 sq. ft. boards 10 ft. long .... 230 sq. ft. 

Ten 12 in. boards 16 fti long 160 sq. ft. 

Three 6 in. matched boards 12 ft. long 18 sq. ft. 

Battens, 2 in. wide, aggregating in length 160 ft. 

Roofing paper, to cover 240 sq. ft. 

Two 6-light sash, 10 x 14 glass; one lock; one pair hinges; nails, screws, etc. 

This estimate allows for lumber to be used in casing window and door, 
strips to finish at top and bottom of front and east side, stuff for nests, drop 
boards, roost and dust box. Prices of material vary in different places. Any 
lumber dealer can give exact cost of such a bill of goods in a few minutes. 



29. Single House with Scratching Shed Underneath. — Fig. 2 

shows a style of single house very often used when 
the site is so far from level that a space must be 
left below the floor, or a considerable fill made. 
The space below the floor of the house is used as a 
scratching shed, the height of the shed being pro- 
portionate to the slope of the hill and the width 
of the house. The higher sheds are usually so 
arranged that in rough weather the front can be 
at least partially closed. The low sheds are usually left unprotected, but 
it is a good idea to have movable fronts to use to exclude snow in blizzard 
weather. The plan is sometimes used with long sectional houses. 




Fig. 2. House with Scratching 
Shed underneath. 



36 PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

30. Other Houses for Single Flocks. — All the poultry houses 
described in the next paragraph can, of course, be used for single flocks in 
yards. Single sections of most of the continuous houses described are used 
for one-pen houses, and these should be examined in connection with the 
plans just given. 

.31. The Colony Plan. — The objectionable features of this plan are such 
that it is not often deliberately adopted for a large poultry plant. Of late, some 
of those who have used the system seem inclined to discard it. The strong- 
hold of the system of colonizing fowls in small families with free range has 
been the belief that fowls could be made more profitable on free range than in 
yards ; that they would be healthier, more vigorous, more prolific, and the 
eggs would be more fertile. As this belief breaks down, people become more 
and more unwilling to put up with the defects of the system for the sake of its 
advantages, real and supposed. Briefly stated, the principal advantages of the 
colony plan are : 

Cheaper houses. 

No expense for fences. 

The fowls can pick a part of their living. 

The scrupulous attention to cleanliness and the care to provide regular 
supplies of animal and vegetable foods, which are a part of the routine work 
of most poultry farms, can be relaxed on a farm run on the colony plan. 

The marked disadvantages of the system are : 

Increased cost of labor in caring for fowls. Taking one thing and one 
season with another, the cost of labor is greater, notwithstanding the slight 
saving on some items of labor. 

Greater difficulty in maintaining strict regularity in feeding. In bad weather, 
just when the most careful attention should be given them, the hens are often 
unavoidably neglected. 

The difficulty of controlling disease in flocks allowed to mingle. 

The modification of the colony plan, which places detached houses in large 
vards, loses the advantage of no cost for fences. Cost of fencing is so much 
increased that rarely is any saving effected in the total cost of housing and 
yarding. In snowy, stormy weather the difficulty of caring for the fowls is 
increased, rather than diminished. 

The colony plan, with or without yards, loses its most serious objections in 
a mild climate. There are many special cases where it might be preferable to 
any other, particularly when poultry keeping is a side issue on a fruit or 
general farm, the hens being kept as insect exterminators, gleaners and 
scavengers. For the ordinary farm stock of poultry the colony plan, on a 
small scale, is often the best. The illustrations given show models of cheap 
and serviceable buildings in use on some of the farms run on the colony plan. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



27 



The tent shaped house, Fig. 3, is 8 
ft. square on the ground, and 8 ft. to the 
apex. The floor is of plank, and the 
front open slat work. Houses like this 
are used upon a large New Hampshire 
farm: The capacity of the house is 12 
hens ; the cost, (in N. H.), about $8. 

Fig. 4 shows a house used on a Rhode 

Island farm. Ground dimensions are 

8 x 12 ft. ; height, to the eaves, 6 ft. ; 

to the apex, 8 ft. The walls are of l'ough 

boards, battened. The roof is shingled. 

About twenty hens can be housed in it. 

In Fig. 5 is shown a house of brick, or stone, with roof of boards covered 

with tarred felt. The drawing was made from a building on a Rhode Island 

farm. Each house of this style was 11 x 14 ft. on the ground; 7 ft. high in 

front, and 4 ft. high in rear. In each 
twenty hens were kept ; but a house of 




Fig. 3. A Tent Shaped Colony Plan House. 




Fig. 4. Colony Plan House. 



Fig. 5. Brick House — for the Colony Plan. 



this size would not be overcrowded with twenty-five to thirty hens of the small 
or medium sized breeds. If new material must be bought and building labor 
hired, it does not generally pay to use brick and stone. If such materials are 
at hand, or can be procured at trifling cost, and the building done by the poul- 
tryman, there is no economy in rejecting them. Facility 
in making use of available building materials, foods, etc., 
is one test of a man's ability as a poultryman. Provided 
the house conforms to the essentials stated in H27, the 
widest latitude may be taken in using materials. Good 
houses have been losr 




houses, grout houses, 
adobe houses. Poul- 
try houses have been 
made with walls and 
roofs of old railroad 
ties, the crevices being 
filled with mud, and 




8r'xfc 



Fig. 6. A Colony Plan Scratching Shed House. 



(St & ■ 



njrn 



J 



28 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



the roofs covered several inches deep with earth. Fig. 6 shows a single house 
often used with the colony plan. It is usually built without windows, the 
south front of the shed being always open, and the door between shed and 
roosting room being closed only in severe weather. Sometimes a slat door 
is hung inside to admit air, while keeping out night prowlers. The diagram 
is for a house 8 x 16 ft. on the ground, the floor space equally divided for the 
close room and the open shed. 





Fig. 7. Two-Pen Poultry House. 

PP, droppings boards; r r, roosts: N N, nests; 
D D, large doors; dd, small doors; w w, win- 
dows; W, water dish; g g, grit box; s, screen 
door; F F, fences. 

32. A Two-Pen Poultry 
House. — Fig. 7 shows a small 
double poultry house, with 
yards at sides and to the rear 
of the house. The ground 
dimensions are io x 16 ft. ; height, at eaves, 6 ft. ; at apex, 8 ft. It has 
shingled roof. The sides are of rough lumber covered with lapped siding. 



Materials. 



Dimension lumber: — 

2 pieces 2x4 scantling 16 ft. long — for sills; 

2 pieces 2x4 scantling 10 ft. long — for sills; 

3 pieces 2x3 scantling 16 ft. long — for plates and studs; 

14 pieces 2x3 scantling 12 ft. long — for rafters, studs, etc.; 
1 piece 2x3 scantling 14ft. long — for studs: 

16 ft. sheathing 

Siding 

6 12-inch boards 16 ft. long, dressed on one side, for cornice, casings, etc. 
2 thousand shingles ; 50 laths ; 2 4-panel doors ; 2 screen doors ; 4 sash 6-lk 
glass ; building paper to cover 500 sq. ft. ; 2 pr. loose pin butt hinges ; 1 pr. 6 in 
1 lock; 1 bolt; nails, screws, etc. 



163 sq. ft. 
500 sq. ft. 
220 sq. ft. 

ht 10 x 14 
T hinges ; 



From this bill of lumber enough will be left, after finishing exterior, for 
inside partition, roosts, droppings boards, nests, dust boxes. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



29 



33. Continuous, or Sectional Poultry Houses. — Intensive poultry 
keeping, many fowls on a small plot of ground, is the practice of most 
progressive poultrymen. The colony plan reproduces as many times as 
desired the conditions of the ordinary farm flock. A system of continuous or 
sectional houses multiplies as often as desired the conditions of the best kept 
flocks. The colony plan allows but eighty to one hundred hens to the acre. 
The continuous house system with suitable yards, allows four hundred to 
five hundred hens to the acre. The failures of the first attempts at intensive 
poultry keeping wei'e due to the failures of the poultrymen to provide meat 
food, vegetable food, grit, exercise. With these errors corrected, results- 
soon showed the superiority of the intensive system for those who make 
poultry keeping a business. The fact that it is the system almost universally 
adopted, makes superfluous a recital of its advantages further than intimated 
in describing the colony plan, and to be mentioned in the description of 
different styles of continuous houses. 



34. Continuous House with Connecting Pens. — In a short house, 
or one containing a few long compartments, passage through the house is 




: . \'//// [/>»/> j w)//> 7777777 >$ ? //y rrnpy rrtf Trr 



Fig. 8. Cheap Four Pen House. 
Dotted lines in the perspective indicate 
positions of studs and rafters; in the 
ground plan, positions of roosts. 

usually from pen to pen. 
Fig. S illustrates such 
a house, containing four 
pens each 12 ft. square. It is a substantial, low cost house, the construction 
being the simplest consistent with strength and durability. It is built without 
sills or plates. The studs are spiked to short cedar posts, placed 4 ft. apart, 
set 1 8 in. into the ground, and projecting the same distance above ground ; or 
the studs are used as posts, the end which goes into the ground having been 
coated with tar. The lower ends of the rafters rest upon the tops of these 
stud-posts ; the upper ends are joined directly, being secured with spikes 

driven through each into the other, and all rafters 
except those at the ends being braced as shown in 
Fig. 9. The dotted lines in the drawing indicate 
the positions of studs and rafters. Each window 
opening adjoins a stud on one side ; on the other 
side a short stud, simply nailed to the sheathing, is placed. This short stud 
extends 6 to 8 in, above the upper edge, and a like di-stance below the lower 




Fig. 9. 



3° 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



edge of the window opening. No scantling are used above or below the 
opening. The sill of the window is a piece of 6-in. board, projecting an inch 
beyond the outer surface of the sheathing, and inclined just enough to prevent 
rain beating under the sash. The distance between studs should equal the 
width of the sash ; the height of the opening should equal the length of the 
sash. The ends of the sheathing boards, projecting one-half inch or more 
beyond the studs, make the outside side sash stops. When the sill has been 
placed as described, and the sash put in, the upper rail of the sash will over- 
lap the edge of the opening. For inside sash stops, strips of lath may be 
used at sides and on sill, and a stop about one inch square nailed to the top 
of the sash and to the sheathing. A window put in in this way is wind and 
water tight. The removal of the sash to fit the house for warm weather, and 
its replacement on the approach of winter, are the work of but an instant. 
The studs should be set plumb, and well braced, and the rafters trued and 
firmly braced until the sheathing is nailed on, and the boards of the partitions 
in place. Sheathing 12 or 16 ft. long should be used, and in putting it on 
joints should be broken about every two feet. Such a house can be either 
shingled or covered with a prepared paper. If not shingled, it can be easily 
taken down, moved, and set up again as good as at first, except that a part of 
the covering material might have to be renewed. 

35. Continuous House for a Farm Flock. — The style of house just 
described is well suited for a farm stock when it is desirable to keep the fowls 

in several flocks, and yet have them housed 
together. The plat shown in Fig. 10 pro- 
vides for a house 12 x 72 ft., with a pen 12 
x 24 ft. in each end, and two pens each 12 
x 12 ft. in the middle. In the supposed case 
for which this plat is made, the hens from the 
east pen have the run of a field, meadow, 
or pasture lot ; those from the west pen run 
into an orchard ; while the middle pens, each 
connected with a yard 36 x 60 ft., can be 
used in season for breeding pens, for fat- 
tening pens, or simply in connection with 
adjacent end pens, giving the two large 
flocks additional house room. If the field 
fence is made " hen-tight " for ten rods each 




Fig. 10. Four Pen House for a Farm Flock. 

way from the house, there will be little danger of the flocks mingling 



36. Continuous House with a Walk. — In Fig. 11 is shown the dia- 
gram of a continuous house containing sixteen pens, each reached directly 
from a walk running the entire length of the building. Each pen is 8 ft. 
square. The passage is 4 ft. wide. The height of the building is 6 ft. at the 
eaves, 8 ft. at the peak. Joining the west end of the poultry house is a two- 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



3 1 




YAftO 



Fig. 1 1 . Continuous House with a Walk. 

story building to be used as work shop, cook room and store room. The 
ground dimensions of this building are 12 x 20 ft. It is 14 ft. high at the 
eaves, 16 ft. at peak of roof; the first story 8 ft. in the clear. The diagram 
also shows the plat of yards. The small yards 8 x 32 ft. correspond to the 
divisions of the house. For every two small yards there is one large yard 
16 x 64 ft., to be kept in grass. The capacity of the house is one hundred 
and sixty to two hundred and forty fowls, with ten to fifteen in each pen. 
The frame of the long house may be constructed with 
sills of 4 x 4 in. stuff ; studs, plates and rafters of 2 x 
3 in. scantling; studs and rafters being 4 ft. apart at 
centers, except in front, where the 
studs should be spaced to come be- 
side window openings. The studs 
and rafters of the two-story building 
Part of Long Building in Fig. ii. should be 2 ft. apart, at centers. If 

a board floor is put in the lower room 2x8 in. joists should be used, the 

same as for the upper floor. 

Materials. 

Dimension lumber : — 

20 pieces 4x4 in., 16 ft. long 

94 pieces 2x3 in., 14 ft. long 

2 pieces 2x3 in., 20 ft. long 

8 pieces 2 x 2 in 




Elevation of Front of Two Story Building and 



26 pieces 2x3 in., 
45 pieces 2x3 in., 
24 pieces 2x8 in., 
16 ft. Ion? : 



16 ft. long ; 
12 ft. long ; 
12 ft. long ; 



2210 sq. ft. 



3 2 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 



Sheathing, (rough) „ 55 oo sq. ft. 

Sheathing, (surfaced for droppings boards) 200 sq. ft. 

Matched flooring for floors, doors, grain bins 750 sq. ft. 

Building paper, to cover 4500 sq. ft. 

2 rolls wire netting 5 ft. wide, 2-inch mesh. 

22 6-light sash, 10 x 14 glass; 2 4-panel doors; 2 pr. loose pin butt hinges; 2 pr. 6-in. T 

hinges; 16 pr. 4-in. T hinges; 2 locks; nails, screws, hooks, staples, etc. 

Note. — If the building is covered with shingles the pitch of the roofs must be greater 
than in the figure. The roofs should be 1 ft. higher at the peaks — 35 thousand shingles 
are required to cover the building, laying them on the roof 5 in., and on the sides 6 in. to 
the weather. 



37. Plan for Doing all Work from the Walk. — Fig. 13 shows how 
the pens in a house of the style described in ^[36 may be arranged to permit 
all work, — feeding, watering, cleaning droppings boards, and collecting 




Fig. 13. Showing the Arrangement for Doing the Work in a Long House 
from the Walk. P, passage; R, roost platform; a, door to roost; c, door 
to nests. 

eggs — to be done from the walk. The arrangement 
cannot be considered the best for a practical poultry 
man seeking a plan by which the items, cost, capacity, and convenience, are 
balanced with a view to the greatest profit. The plan is also open to criticism 
on the ground that nearly all work being done without going into the pens, the 
fowls do not become accustomed to the presence of the attendant. Then 
when it is necessary to go into the pens, the fowls make a disturbance detri- 
mental to egg production. There are, however, cases where it is an advan- 
tage to the one caring for the fowls to be able to give them all necessary atten- 
tion without going into the pens. The arrangement will recommend itself to 
those who want a house in which they can do the daily chores without being 
obliged to change from their ordinary dress to a poultryman's working clothes. 



38. House with Two Rows of Pens and Passage. — The Monitor 
Top House. — Convenience alone being considered, this method of housing 
is superior to all others. A house of this style may face east and west, the 
common plan ; or, south. In the houses with east and west exposures the 
pens on the east side receive only the morning sun ; those on the west side 
receive the sun only in the afternoon. In what is known as the monitor top 
house, Fig. 14, the passage is made 3 ft. higher than in the common plain 
style house, and windows placed in each side of the extension, so that each 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



33 





YARD. 





&~'~ '& 



Fig. 14. Monitor Top House. Showing perspective, ground plan, partition between pen and passage, and 
partition between pens. 



34 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



pen in the house receives both morning and afternoon sun. Opinion is 
divided as to the value of the monitor top house. Not enough of them have 
been constructed and fully tested to show whether the defects in the house 
are such as can be overcome, or are irremediable. As the matter stands, the 
monitor top house is recommended only for short houses and for plants in 
moderate climates. 



Materials. 

28 short cedar posts to support sills. 
Dimension lumber: — 

2 pieces 4x4 in. 20 ft. long ; 
18 pieces 2 x 3 in. 18 ft. long; 
38 pieces 2 x 3 in. 10 ft. long; 



(Fig- 13.) 



4 pieces 4 x 4 in. 18 ft. long ; 

8 pieces 2 x 3 in. 12 ft. long; 

6 pieces 2 x 2 in. 16 ft. long : 

020 sq. ft. 

Sheathing 2000 sq. ft. 

Matched flooring 300 sq. ft. 

Building paper to cover 1600 sq. ft. 

12 sash, 6-light, 10 x 12 glass ; 98 sq. ft. wire netting, (2-in. mesh) 6 ft. wide ; 256 sq, ft. 
netting 4 ft. wide ; 2 pr. 6-in. T hinges, 6 pr. 4-in. T hinges, 6 pr. hinges for sash in 
top ; locks, bolts, nails, etc. 

To estimate material for a house without monitor top, use the same ground 
plan, but figure on studs in passage partitions 3 ft. shorter; rafters 2 ft. longer 
than the long rafters over the pens ; as much less sheathing and building 
paper as are required for the sides of the monitor top ; and only half as many 
pieces of sash. 



39. The Semi=Monitor Top House. 




Fig. IS. Semi-Monitor Top House. 



Fig. 15 illustrates the adaptation 
of the monitor top idea to a 
house facing south, but still 
having two rows of pens, 
and a walk in the middle. 
The plan is not a good one 
for permanent quarters for 
laying stock. For a surplus 
stock house it works very 
well. Sometimes it can be 
used on the site available 
better than any other. 



40. A Scratching Shed House. — Without a Walk. — Fig. 16 shows 
a very popular house. The prominent feature of the plan is that it gives the 
fowls a sheltered place with fresh air in abundance, and provision for exercise. 
The house illustrated is 10 ft. wide, 7 ft. high in front, and 4 ft. high in rear. 
Each 18 ft. section has a roosting room 8 x 10 ft., and an open front scratching 
shed 10 x 10 ft. The relative positions of the closed and open parts of adjoin- 
ing sections are reversed, bringing the parts together in pairs, two closed 
rooms, then two open sheds. The cost of construction is thus diminished, and 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



35 




36 PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

the roosting rooms are warmer. The fronts of the sheds are of wire netting, 
with cloth curtains (on light wooden frames hung on hinges) inside, which 
are let down in stormy weather and on cold nights. Each section has a 
capacity of twenty to thirty fowls. 

Materials. 

23 short cedar posts to go under sills. 
Dimension lumber : — 

5 pieces 2x4 in. 10 ft. long; 4 pieces 2x4 in. iS ft. long; 

19 pieces 2x4 in. 12 ft. long ; 4 pieces 2x3 in. 18 ft. long ; 

2 pieces 2x3 in. 16 ft. long ; 6 pieces 2x3 in. 14 ft. long ; 

5 pieces 2x3 in. 12 ft. long : 

356 sq. ft. 

Sheathing 1000 sq. ft. 

Matched flooring . . 200 sq. ft. 

Roofing paper to cover 800 sq. ft. 

120 sq. ft. 6 ft. wide wire netting, 2-in. mesh ; 64 sq. ft. 4 ft. wide wire netting; 12 yds. 
muslin for curtains; 4 6-light sash, 8 x 10 glass; 5 pr. 6-in T hinges; 2 pr. 3-in. T 
hinges ; locks, latches, nails, etc. 

Note. — Studs should be placed as indicated by the small white squares in the 
diagram, rafters 2 ft. apart at centers. The plan may be changed to slightly lessen the 
cost and increase a little the capacity of the house. Records of numerous flocks kept, in 
houses of this kind seem to show that the better plan is to have the two parts of the 
section of equal size, and cover both floors with scratching material. With such an 
arrangement, each part being 9 x 10 ft., all studs and rafters in a house with 18 ft. 
sections are placed 3 ft. apart. 

41. Suggestions for Scratching Shed Houses. — The style of house 
described in ^[40 is the one most generally used. The original plan was for 
a close house, of which a part could be made an open shed at will. There is 
reason to think that in principle this is the better plan, though the particular 
design first given had objectionable features. In Fig. 17 are shown some 
suggestions for houses in which the scratching sheds can be open or close at 
will. The drawing at A represents a house with sections of different 
dimensions, the first 16 ft. long, the next 24 ft. long. Each section is 
divided into two equal parts, one of which can be made, practically, an open 
shed by opening the door, which is 4 ft. wide in the small section, and 6 ft. 
wide in the large one. The half-windows light the sheds when the doors are 
closed. The design at B shows another arrangement for fronts of shed rooms 
of same dimensions as at A. The doors proper are but 2 ft. wide. The half- 
windows are placed 1 ft. from the ground. The upper half of each front, 
exclusive of the door, can be opened or closed at will. By an arrangement 
of double hinging, shown in detail in Fig. 18, the shutters swing either in or 
out. In winter, when it is desirable to admit the sun, the shutters swing in. 
For warm weather, the shutters swing out, is an awning, excluding the sun 
from the shed, shading the half-windows, and making the shed during the 
heat of the day an ideal ccol place for hens. The stop over the joint between 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



37 




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the lower edge of the shutter and the joint should be screwed 
j to the shutter when the shutter is wanted to swing in, and to 
the jamb when the shutter swings out. 

42. Scratching Shed House with a Walk. — Fig. 19 

(p. 38) shows how a scratching shed house may be built with 

a passage from which each pen and shed is entered without 

passing through others. The pens are in two wings, running 

east and west from a two story building 

containing work shop, cook room and 

store room. In the original plan each 

wing, containing ten sections, was 180 

ft. long. In the plan here given the 

length of the wings has been reduced to 

bring the illustration within the limits 

of the page. The walk is separated, by 

a tight partition, from pens and sheds, 

and is lighted by half-windows in the 

north wall, which in the original plan 

« contained besides these openings a door 

W every 60 ft. With wings as short as in 

JK the plan given, a door at the extreme 

m end of each wing is all that is needed. 

■o This house has a low stone foundation. 

o The floors are filled to the level of the 
w 

"S sills with earth. 








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Fig. 18. Section and Inside of One End of 
a Shutter as shown at B, Fig. 17. P, plate; 
ss, position of stud; t, stop; hh, hinges. 



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PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



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39 



Materials. 

Dimension lumber : — 

32 pieces 2x4 in. 18 ft. long; 

2 pieces 2x4 in. 14 ft. long; 

28 pieces 2x3 in. 14 ft. long ; 

26 pieces 2 x S in. 16 ft. long ; 



8 pieces 2x4 in. 16 ft. long; 
62 pieces 2x3 in. 16 ft. long; 
44 pieces 2x3 in. 12 ft. long; 
16 pieces 2x2 in. 10 ft. long : 




2120 sq. ft. 

Sheathing 7000 sq ft. 

Matched flooring 15 00 sq. ft. 

Roofing paper to cover 5500 sq. ft. 

24 6-light sash, 10 x 14 glass; 9 pr. 6-in. T hinges; 18 pr. 4-in. T hinges; locks, bolts, 
nails, screws, hooks, staples, etc. For the chimney about 40 bricks for each foot in 
height will be needed. 

To Make the Joints at the Eaves Wind Tight. — In constructing the house 
from which this plan is adapted, the builder devised a novel and effective way 
of making the joint of the side walls and roof wind tight. The paper on the 

sides (see Fig. 20) is lapped over 
onto the first board of the roof. 
A double row of shingles is then 
laid, just as if the roof was to be 
shingled, and the roof paper is 
lapped well over the shingles. 
If this plan is followed in con- 
structing a house, three-fourths 
M. of shingles should be added 

to the bill of materials given. 
Fig. 20. fe 

43. A Poultry House with Roosts on the Warm Side. — In Fig. 21 
(p. 40) is shown a house designed to combine the best features of plans already 
described, with a few ideas not heretofore generally applied to poultry houses. 
The radical difference between this and all other plans given, is that the roosts 
are placed near the south wall and parallel to it. As is well known, the south 
side of a room is, as a rule, the warmest side. The simple change in position 
of the roosts gives the fowls the warmest part of the house to sleep in. To 
make it possible to keep the fowls comfortably warm on the coldest nights, 
and to regulate the temperature near the roosts, the roosts are enclosed in a 
box, the entire front of which can be opened or closed as desired. (The boxed 
roost has been used for some time by breeders of large combed varieties, but 
has generally been placed either near the north wall, or in the middle of the 
pen, where it obstructs the light). 

By removing the roosts from the north wall and doing away with a passage, 
both earth floor and litter can be removed and renewed through a half-window 
in the north side of each pen. This work can be done in each pen without 
disturbing the fowls in any other. The plan saves labor, earth and litter being 
transferred directly from wagon to pen, or vice versa. In most houses straw 
and litter are handled through the passage, or from pen to pen ; earth through 



PO UL TR r- CRAFT. 




~w 



T 






Fig. 21. Poultry House with Roosts on South Side. — Showing in the upper drawing the exterior perspective 
of a section 12 x 18 ft. ; below it interior view of the south side and roost box; in the lower drawing the ground plan 
in which R is the roost box; N, nests; D, dust box; F, feed troughs; the small squares indicate the positions of studs. 

the south windows, it being necessary to remove a section of every fence 
connecting with the house to make passage for the cart or wagon. The result 
of this cumbrous way of working is that the pen floors are more or less 
neglected. With this arrangement the work of keeping them in order can be 
made what it should be on a well regulated plant — an odd job to be taken up 
between routine tasks. The disadvantage of having no passage in a long 
house is partially obviated by placing an outside door in the north wall of 
every third pen (see Fig. 26). The roosts being at the south side and boxed 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 



41 



.-I 



up, it is not so n ,-cessary that the north wall be tight as in other houses. 
These doors should, however, have outside storm doors which can be tightly 
closed in the severest weather. 

The house can be built with a walk as shown in the diagram, Fig. 22. 
Here the walk is 3 ft. wide. (It can be wider .if desired). The door between 

walk and pen is at the middle of 
v~ I each pen, and opposite the half- 

window in the north wall. With 
this arrangement it is still possible 
to handle earth, etc., from pen to 
wagon and from wagon to pen, 
though the work is not quite so 
easy. The expense of a walk is 
F '£- 22 - considerable in a long house, and 

the additional width of the building does not increase its capacity. It is a 
question for each builder whether in his case the greater general convenience 
of the walk will compensate for the increased cost of the building, and some 
extra labor in doing special work. 

The house shown in Fig. 22 is 12 x rSft. : 216 sq. ft. of floor space, of which 
all but that occupied by nests and dust box is available exercise space. The 
whole house can be tightly closed, or with the windows and doors in the south 
side open, will give all the fresh air that can be used. The doors and windows 
can be opened as much or as little as desired. The position of the windows 
gives the maximum of sunlight in the house, with the minimum exposure of 
glass. The bottom of the roost box is the droppings board, which should 
have strips of furring on the end and back edges, but not on the front edge, 
and should rest on cleats on which it will slide like a wide shallow drawer 
without a front. It can be removed in an instant, thus making it easy to get 
at the interior of the roost box to keep it clean and free from vermin. A row 
of i-in. auofer holes should be bored at the lower edsre of each lower door to 
allow gases to escape when the box is tightly closed. If preferred, a curtain 
of burlap can be used in front of the roosts, instead of the doors. The 
illustration shows a house built with sills and plates, and having both roof 
and sides shingled. The cost of the house can be reduced by constructing as 
in Fig. 8. The roost box is built with ends front and bottom of matched 
flooring. Ordinarily the wall back of it need not be doubled, but in a very 
cold climate it might be well to line both back and top of the box with 
matched lumber. 

flaterials. 

A single house of the dimensions in Fig. 21 requires : 
Dimension lumber: — 



2 pieces 4x4 in. 18 ft. long ; 

2 pieces 2 x 3 in. iS ft. long; 

3 pieces 2x3 in. 16 ft. long; 



2 pieces 4 x 4 in. 
14 pieces 2 x 3 in. 



12 ft. long: 
12 ft. Ions: : 



1 piece 2x3 in. 14 ft. long : 



213 sq. ft. 



42 POULTRY- CRA FT. 

Sheathing ......... 600 sq. ft. 

Matched flooring isO sq. ft. 

Roofing paper, or shingles to cover 600 sq. ft. 

2 pr. 6-in. T hinges; 2 pr. 4-in. T hinges; lock, bolt, nails, etc. 

44. A Complete Plant Under Cover. — As a rule the plat of a large 
plant must conform to the "lay" of the land on which it is situated. It is 



neic( 



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Fig. 23. Plat of Plant Arranged so that Work may all be done Under Cover in Stormy Weather. — A, central 
building; B B, laying houses; C C, brooder or brooder and surplus stock houses; Yy, yards; gg, gates. 

not always possible to so place the buildings that the greatest convenience in 
doing the work is secured. Fig. 23 shows how, if there is available a piece 
of level or gently sloping, (to the south or southeast) ground, 400 ft. long, 
east and west, and 200 ft. wide, a large poultry plant arranged to permit the 
work to be done for days at a time without ■ going from under cover, can be 
placed on it. (It is, of course, understood that on this space only the build- 
ings and yards are placed. There must be additional room for rearing chicks 
for stock birds. While chicks can be reared in yards, the yards of this plant 
would not accommodate the stock on hand during spring and early summer 
months). Such an arrangement has immense advantages. The plant is very 
compact. All supplies are conveniently stored. Practically every part of the 
plant is accessible by wagon. But the best thing about the plan is that bad 
weather never need interfere with the care of the fowls. To the uninitiated 
it may seem a little thing that hens should be kept waiting for food for an 












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Fig. 24. Central Building of the Plant shown in Fig. 23. 




Fig. 25. Elevations of Central Building in Fig. 23. — A, east side; B, south side. 



44 



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hour or two on a winter morning, 

while paths are being broken from 

building to building ; and that the 

poultry man should occasionally be 

obliged to add to his other tasks the 

dead weight of a few hours snow 

. shoveling. One who has kept fowls 

^ for profit through a single winter 

^ knows that regular feeding is of the 

"g utmost importance. He also knows 

| that it is at these waiting times that 

3 hens develop such vices as egg eating 

jj and feather pulling. He knows that 

"S it makes a difference to the poultry 

•5, keeper whether his extra work must 

2 be done at high pressure before the 

g regular day's work begins, or can be 

o 

done more leisurely at intervals dur- 

1 ing the day. On a plant after this 

■* plan the only path to be made on a 

g snowy morning is from the dwelling 

§ to the door of the main building. 

S All others can wait for fine weather 

g and a convenient season. 

M 

1 The plan provides for a central 

I building, A A, connecting two long 

j houses, B B B, for laying and breed- 

° ing- stock, and two long brooder or 

cj brooder and surplus stock houses, 

!> 

to C C C. These lone houses can be 

^ built in any style desired. The cen- 

g tral building is sufficiently described 

^ in the diagrams in Fig. 34, and ele- 

c . . 

I vations in Fig. 25. 
o 

Fig. 26 shows the adaptation of 

^ house designs in Figs. 21 and 34, 

a. to this general plan. All supplies 

and products are kept in the central 

building. The droppings, collected 

daily, are placed in boxes, Fig. 27, 

distributed as at 000, Fig. 26. As 

often as necessary a wagon makes 

the round of the boxes, removing 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



45 



v^A^ ^ >■>** 



the accumulated droppings. There should be a small covered opening 
through the north wall at each box, that it may not be necessary to leave the 

building to empty a pail of droppings. 
Some poultry keepers have bins for grain 
connected with each house much as these 
droppings boxes are, though not as nu- 
merous. The idea is a good one, and can 
be easily added here. These extra bins 
should be near the ends of the long houses 
furthest from the central building. 

The water supply for a plant of this 
kind is one of the first things to be con- 
sidered. If connection can be made with 
a water system the problem is simple. Failing this, there should be a well, or 
cistern, from which water can be pumped to the main floor of the central 
building. If a well, there might be an advantage in having a windmill and 
tank so placed that water could be distributed by pressure to every part of the 
plant. A comparatively inexpensive way of securing a limited supply of 
water for emergency use is to place a large tank to be filled from the roof, in 
the loft of the, main building. This tank should be provided with an overflow 
pipe, and the floor beneath it should be made strong enough to support its 
weight when full of water. 




Fig. 27. Box for Storing Droppings. 




Fig. 28. An Incubator Cellar — Interior View. (By courtesy of Weber Bros.) 



4 6 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



45. Incubator Cellars. — A dry well ventilated cellar or basement is the 
best place for an incubator. Machines can be run successfully in rooms 
wholly above ground, but require closer attention because of greater and more 
rapid variations in the temperature of the room. Where only one or two 
machines are used they are oftenest kept in the cellar of the dwelling. In 
case of fire this may invalidate insurance. It is better always to have a place 
specially for incubators. On a large plant the incubator cellar is a necessity. 
Various methods of constructing incubator cellars are shown in Figs. 24, 28, 
34. An incubator cellar need not be well lighted, but provision must be 
made for thorough ventilation. The air must be kept pure. Usually this is 
accomplished if the cellar has arrangements for ventilation about as in a good 
dwelling: house cellar. 




Fig. 29. Exterior View of a Long Brooder House, (By courtesy of E. M. & W, Ferguson). 

46. Brooder Houses. — The style of brooder house used will depend oil 
the system of brooding adopted. If the continuous pipe system is used, the 
brooder house will, in its general features, resemble the long poultry house 
with passage and single row of pens. Fig. 29 is an exterior view of such a 



\ 


I 


B 


0" 


'c 


Pen 



























Fig, 30. Ground Plan of a Long Brooder House — Pipe System — single row of pens. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



47 



•-^ 



" °J <i 



Wm 



77-rr 



r 



house. Fig. 30 shows a ground plan, and Fig. 31 a cross section, of a plain 
style brooder house very commonly used. It is 13 ft. wide, and any length 
desired. The walk is excavated to a depth of iS inches, thus giving a passage 
along the north side of a house only 4^ ft. high at the eaves. The walk is 3^ 

ft. wide ; the brooder 30 in. wide. Each 
pen is 5 x 7| ft. The partitions between 
the pens is of board 1 ft., wire netting 2 ft., 
making the total height 3 ft. The partition 
between the pens and the walk is at the 
inner edge of the bi"ooder. This brooder 
is really a long box containing, generally, 
four pipes — two flow and two return — 
Fig. 31. Cross Section of Long Brooder House connecting with hot water heater, placed in 

— pipe svstem — single row of pens. , •, i_Tj.ii ii i 1 r t i 

a pit several feet below the level or the 
floor, at one end of the house. (In very long houses the heater is sometimes 
placed in the middle). At the end near the heater the pipes are about 4 in. 
from the floor. They rise gradually until, at the further end, they are 8 in. 
from the floor. They pass through holes bored at the proper height in each 
cross partition of the brooder, (the partitions of the brooder correspond to 
the pen partitions), and require no other supports. The top, or cover, of each 
section of the brooder is of matched boards held together with cleats, and 
lined on the under side with building paper. These covers are sometimes 
hinged ; sometimes rest on cleats nailed to the sides of the brooder. The side 
of the brooder next the walk is a solid board. The side communicating with 
the pens is of woolen cloth with slits at short intervals to permit the chicks 
passing in and out. The pens nearest the heater, where the pipes are lowest, 
are used for the smallest chicks. As each hatch comes off the whole lot of 
chicks is advanced one or more pens, being driven through small doors in the 
partitions between the pens. 

In the plan shown in Fig, 32 the pipes are laid level, and the smaller chicks 
brought near the heat by the use of movable floors or by filling up the brooder 
floors with chaff. This plan is preferred by many, as it does away with 
moving the chicks to accommodate each new lot. If pens are all of a size, 
the lots must be divided as the chicks grow. In some houses the pens are 
made of varied widths to provide for lots nearly equal hi number, but varying 
in size. In the colder sections of the country many have put pipes along the 
north wall of the brooder house, because they found it difficult to keep up the 
temperature on cold nights. Their difficulty was due to using too small a 
heater ; and the builder should take care to avoid their mistake instead of 
imitating their way of correcting it. 



47. Nursery Brooders in a Long House. — Instead of starting chicks 
under pipes a few inches from the floor, many use nursery brooders. These 
are small separate brooders heated by lamps. They are purchased complete 



4 S 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



from manufacturers, and are usually nearly, if not quite, like the brooders 
used for brooding in detached houses. When these brooders are used in 
connection with the pipe system, a common plan is to have the heater near 
the middle of a long house, pipes running one ? /north sioe 

way from the heater, and the pens in the opposite 
direction being used for nursery brooders — one 
in each pen. 





OO/ND PLA 



N 



£)G>UTr\ 5>id&. 




5E.CTI9/S TMR9U6D C~D 




i^oyTM &ev&TL9fiL 



By Courtesy Reliable Poultry Journal. 



Fig. 32. Brooder House with Incubator Cellar, — Main house, 16 x 52 ft.; wing, 8 x 16 ft.; basement, 16 x 16 ft.; 
hall, 4 ft. wide; pipes 8 in. from the floor, six one-inch flow pipes; one two-inch return pipe. House double 
boarded wilh paper between. Cost complete, about $250. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



49 



48. Houses for Separate, or Detached Brooders. — The pipe brooder 

house can be used only to brood chicks ; its arrangement makes it unsuitable 
for housing stock. Besides this, the brooder being built into the house, if 

once it becomes infested with lice 
there is great difficulty in getting rid 
of them. Some poultrymen use 
detached brooder houses like that 
shown in Fig. 33. In this is placed 
a small brooder, which is removed 
when the chicks no longer need the 
heat. Roosts may then be put in, 
and the chicks kept in the same 
house until grown. Fig. 34 shows 
how this simple detached brooder 




Fig. 33; A Detached Brooder House. 



house has been developed into a long house with a separate compartment for 
each brooder. This house has no walk. Communication between pens is 
through doors, near the front in the partitions. There are yards, as wide as 
the sections of the house, and as long as wanted, and the house can be used 
for laying stock, for surplus cockerels, or for fattening stock. 

49. Fences. — The fence question is a very simple one. The fence 
must be high enough to prevent the fowls from flying over ; strong enough to 
stand a stiff wind storm without damage. Contiguous yards in which adult 
males are kept must have at least the first 2 ft. in height, of tight boards. 
The common fencing materials are lath, wire netting, and woven wire. 
Wire fences give best satisfaction. Lath fences are sometimes preferred for 
the shade they affoi'd. It is better to use wire, and make shelters in the yards. 
For movable fences wire is now always used. The height of fence needed 
is : for Asiatics, 3 to 4 ft. ; for American varieties, 5 to 6 ft. ; for small breeds, 
5 to 6 ft., according to size of yard; small yards require higher fences. If 
fowls are not kept in bounds by a 6-ft. fence their wings should be clipped, 
or the run covered with netting of 3-in. mesh. 




Fig. 34. A Brooder and Surplus Stock House. 



50 PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 

50. Hints to Builders. — How Much Room per Row/. — The rule so 
often given, 10 sq. ft. house floor space, and ioo sq. ft. yard space to each 
fowl, is not generally adhered to by poultry keepers. In practice it is found 
that small flocks need proportionally more room than large ones. Large hens 
need more room than small ones, though being less restive in confinement, 
the difference is not strictly in proportion to size. If fowls have to be closely 
housed for long periods they need more house room than if they can be out of 
doors nearly all the time. Some house plans give greater capacity than 
others, but this depends more on position of doors and windows, and 
arrangement of interior fixtures, than on actual floor dimensions. 

House Room. — Floor Space. — For hens of the medium sized breeds, in 
flocks of twelve or more, the allowance of floor space should be 5 to 6 sq. ft. 
per hen. For smaller flocks the space per hen should increase as the number 
of hens decreases. Practically as large a house is needed for eight or ten hens 
as for twelve. This rule may safely be used in planning houses of any 
required average capacity. Inexperienced poultry keepers should keep on the 
safe side of it when stocking houses; for their judgment on the matters 
referred to as affecting the application of a general rule, is apt to be faulty, 
and most apt to err in the direction of overcrowding, which is a serious 
evil. 

Cubic Space. — No rule for this need be given. The plain rule for height 
of buildings, given as axiom J, under "Making Plans and Estimates," 
being followed, a house will have abundant air space for all the fowls its 
floor will accommodate. 

Yard Room .— If yards are to be in permanent sod, the rule of 100 sq. ft. 
per hen is about right. If other provision is made for green food, the yards 
being simply exercise grounds, estimates for yards may be made on a basis of 
25 to 30 sq. ft. per fowl. An intermediate system of yarding is sometimes 
used. This gives each pen of hens a small exercise yai-d, and to every two 
pens a grass yard. This last is generally smaller than could be kept in sod 
were the hens constantly on it, and the hens are given the run of the grass for 
only a few hours daily. 

Making Plans and Estimates. — While not requiring much mechanical 
skill, economical poultry house construction calls for some ingenuity in plan- 
ning to use materials without waste. Plans given in this chapter are drawn 
to scale, and may be used as working plans when no changes are made ; but 
it is advised that for all but the most simple constructions plans be re-drawn 
on an enlarged scale. The mere drawing of the working plan gives the 
novice in building a better idea of what he has to do, and how best to go 
about it, and working from a plan he is less likely to make the numerous and 
common mistakes of amateur carpenters. If changes are made new plans 
must be drawn. One-fourth inch to the foot is a good scale for house plans ; 
for plats of large plants a scale of one-sixteenth inch to the foot is convenient. 



POULTR T- CRA FT. 5 1 

In making plans a few simple rules, which may well be called axioms, 
should be observed : 

(1.) — Permanent quarters for stock should be on the ground floor. Second 
floor space may be used for temporary quarters for surplus stock, for 
fitting exhibition birds, for storage, etc. ; but not much second floor 
space is needed. 
(2.) — Walls should be perpendicular. A sloping front is a bad fault. 
(3.) — -.A house should be as high as necessary to accommodate those work- 
ing in it ; but not higher. Additional height increases the cost of the 
house, and increases the difficulty of regulating the temperature. 
Ventilators are not needed. A poultry house can be aired just as a 
dwelling house is — by opening doors and windows as much or as little as the 
weather conditions require. 

Buying Materials . — Lumber ordered should be of such lengths that there 
will be the least possible waste in using it. It is safest to order a little more 
than is needed. This insures against delays from shortages of material. 
What is not used can usually, if purchased of a local dealer, be returned. If 
not returnable it should be stored away for the time — sure to come — when 
it will be needed. Refuse to accept any and every piece of dimension lumber 
that is not straight, free from bad knots, and of the full length required. See 
to it that the sheathing delivered is of full surface measure. In estimating 
the amount of matched flooring, or lapped siding, needed to cover a given 
surface, make allowance for matching, or lapping, by adding one-fifth to the 
surface measure. Shingles of good quality are cheapest at first cost, as well 
as in the long run. The builders' rule is a thousand shingles laid 4 in. to the 
weather, to the square (100 sq. ft.) If the sheathing on poultry house roofs 
is laid close, and a thin sheathing paper used under the shingles, shingles may 
be laid 4^ or 5 in. to the weather. On the sides of buildings they may be 
5 or 6 in. to the weather. Taking both sides and roof into consideration, 
a safe estimate for shingles will be, a thousand to every 120 sq. ft. 

Prepared Roojing Papers. — These vary in quality. Those advertised 
especially for poultry and farm buildings, are the best. Common tarred 
sheathing paper is not suitable for exterior use. Tarred felt may be used 
outside, and if protected with a coat of tar will last for some time, but is very 
much inferior to the specially prepared papers. Though the best papers are 
not as good as shingles, they are a boon to poultrymen with small capital ; 
properly put on and regularly painted, they last a 'ony time, and at first cost 
ai-e much cheaper than shingles. Paper can also be used to cover old 
buildings not suitable for shingling. Dealers in builders' supplies generally 
carry stocks of roofing papers. Sometimes people hesitate to buy the special 
brand they want because the local dealer does not keep it, and the factory 
is so far away that freight would add too much to the cost. Manufacturers 
usually have distributing agents in different sections. Write to headquarters 



52 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



for information. The request will be referred to the nearest agent. Different 
makes of paper vary in width, and in the quantity in a roll. When a 
particular kind of paper is to be used it may be well to make the dimensions 
of the building suit the paper. A change of a few inches in a measurement 
of the original plan sometimes saves material and labor without appreciably 
affecting the capacity of the house. 

Paint. — Roofing papers and all exposed (outside) wood surfaces, except 
shingles, should be painted. Shingles on roofs of slight pitch last longer 
unpainted. Pure lead and oil makes the best paint. After this come the 
prepared paints ground in oil, of the consistency of keg lead, and to be 
thinned with oil. The best cheap paints are made of Venetian red, yellow 
ochre, or brown earth paint, (often called mineral paint), mixed with boiled 
linseed oil. The red and yellow can be bought either in dry form or ground 
in oil. The brown is usually to be had only in the dry form. Paint, when 
applied, should be of such consistency that it works freely, but does not 




POULTR T- CRA FT. 53 



CHAPTER IV. 



Poultry Fixtures. 

51. Roosts. — The reader will have noticed in the plans where the height 
of the roost is indicated the roosts are placed low down ; he will also have 
observed that when more than one roost is used the roosts are on the same 
level. There are several reasons for low roosts. Fowls of the heavy breeds 
cannot fly to a high roost. Fowls of all but the lightest breeds often injure 
their feet by jumping from a high roost to a hard floor. When droppings 
boards are used they should be tolerably low down, both for convenience in 
cleaning, and that the least possible portion of dust from them may be 
breathed in by the person doing the work. The roost being but a few inches 
above the board, low roosts are most common, even for Leghorns and 
Minorcas. The object of having all roosts on the same level is to prevent 
fowls crowding one another from the roosts, as they do when the roosts are 
on different levels, and the fowls all trying to get on the highest. The 
amount of roost room per fowl varies with the size of the fowl. As a rule, 
fowls sit close together on the roosts, even in hot weather, and when there is 
room to spare. For Leghorns 6 to 7 in., for Wyandottes and Plymouth 
Rocks 7 to 9 in., for Brahmas and Cochins 8 to 10 in., will be safe estimates. 
The roosts should be about 8 in. from the droppings board, and, unless it 
extends clear across a pen, should be a little shorter than the board. Some 
use 2x2 in. scantling for roosts, others prefer wider stuff, especially for 
heavy fowls. For short wide roosts, inch stuff 4 or 5 in. wide will do. For 
long roosts, stuff must be thicker, or the weight of the fowls causes it to sag 
in the middle. The upper edges of the roost should be slightly rounded. 

52. Droppings Boards. — These may be of matched flooring, or of 
sheathing surfaced on one side. Strips of furring 2 in. wide are generally 
nailed to the edges of the board to prevent the droppings being scattered. 
For a single roost, the board should be 18 or 20 in. wide; for two roosts, 
about 3 ft. wide. Droppings boards are a great convenience in a well kept 
house. A neglected house is better without them. If droppings are allowed 
to accumulate, the boards become saturated with liquid manure, and being so 
close under the fowls, make bad conditions worse. 

53. Nests. — On some of the best equipped plants the nests in the laying 
pens are soap boxes placed on the floor in the corner. These answer admir- 



54 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 




ably as long as there are no egg 
\. eaters in the pens. Such nests may 
also be used for sitters, but where 
many hens are set it is difficult to 
Fig. 35. Dark Nests to go under Roost Platform. manage them in the open nests. 

Fig. 35 shows a bank of dark nests to go under a roost platform. Fig. 36 

shows how dark nests may be constructed to attach to the wall at a suitable 

height from the floor, thus saving 

floor space. This nest is mov- 
able. The sloping top prevents 

hens perching on it. Fig. 37 

shows a good nest for a sitting 

hen. Fig. 38 shows similar nests 

built in pairs, and with movable 

front to confine the hens to the 

nests at the will of the keeper. 

Fig. 39 shows how nests may be 

placed in a partition and each 

nest connected at will with either „. _, _, , „ ,„ „ , , , 

Hig. 36. Dark Nest to hang on Wall. A, exterior view; 
Of two pens. The particular ad- B, interior view; a, mortised block to hold nest in place. 

vantage of these reversible nests is that they do away with the changing of 
the broody hens to new nests. Fig. 40 shows how the fronts of the nests 
are made. Covered nest boxes should be not less than 12 in. high, (14 in. is 
better), and from 12 to 14 in. square, according to the size of the hens. 

Ratent Nest Boxes. — Nest arrangements designed 
to show which hens are laying, and also to keep lay- 
ing records of individual hens, cannot be described 
or illustrated here. The best of them are patented. 
The others. do not meet general approval. Those 
wishing such nests will find them advertised in the 
poultry papers. They are not expensive, and, once 
Fig. 37. Nest for a Sitting Hen. used, are considered indispensable. 





54. Feed Troughs. — The common V-shaped trough is the cheapest and 
most easily made. A trough 3 ft. 4 in. long may be made from a 10-in. board 

4 ft. long, at a cost of about five cents. 
To make such a trough cut a piece 8 in. 
lone from the board : cut this asrain 



41 




Fig. 38. Double Nest Box for Sitters. 



Fig. 39. Reversible Nests to go in partition between pens. 



PO UL TR r- CRAFT. 



55 



k "=• 


1 










<=■ I 


s 




o 




o 




5 















lengthwise, making tw.o pieces each 
5 x 8 in. These are for the ends. 
Cut the remainder of the board in 
two, lengthwise, making one piece 
4^ in. wide, the other 5^ in. wide, 
„. ..p.,,, ki m . », • . /'♦ Nail the wide piece to the narrow 

Fig. 40. Front of Reversible Nests, showing nests at o o, r 

open; at s s, closed. one ; nail on the ends. Many poul- 

tiymen use a shallow flat-bottomed box trough, 6 or 8 in. wide. A Iabor 
saving trough of this kind is made by using for the sides pieces 4 or 5 in. wide 
nailed at the middle to the edges of the 
bottom, thus making a reversible trough. 
A trough on the floor of a pen catches 
some litter and dust, which have to be 
removed before food is placed in it. 
This is usually effected, with an open 
trough, by turning it over. The revers- 
ible trough saves the movement of turn- 
ing the trough back — quite a saving in 
a year on a large plant. Fig. 41 shows 
two feed troughs designed to keep fowls 
from getting in the troughs and fouling 
the food with their feet. Such troughs Fig - 4i ' Feed Trou s hs - 

should be used if soft food is allowed to stand before the fowls. In a clean 
house and for fowls fed only what mash they will eat " clean and quick," the 
plain troughs are just as good. Those who want something nicer than the 
homemade trough of the practical poultryman will find several good feed 
troughs on sale. 




55. Drinking Vessels. — There are a number of different styles of drink- 
ing fountains made especially for fowls, on the market. Many poultry keepers 
prefer open drinking vessels. These may be of iron, galvanized iron, granite 
ware or tin. Objections to the use of tin drinking vessels because oxide of 
tin is a poison, are very far fetched. The amount of poison a fowl would take 
from the drinking water is infinitesimal. It is not advised to buy tin drinking 
vessels, — for in the end they are most expensive, — but often it is found 
convenient to use as drinking vessels tinware discarded for kitchen purposes. 
In a modern poultry house the water pans are placed on shelves, high enough 
from the floor to keep the " rough " of the dirt out, either in the hall partitions 
or in partitions between pens. They are sometimes protected by slats, but 
such an arrangement does not favor dispatch in cleaning and refilling vessels. 
Devices of this kind are often strongly recommended by those accustomed to 
their use, though the benefits are, all things considered, questionable. No 
matter what arrangement is made to keep coarse dirt out of the drinking pans, 
the fine dust, which is the objectionable and more injurious dirt, settles in them, 
and should be removed as often as fresh water is given. 



56 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 



56. Receptacles for Grit and Shell. — One of the most convenient of 
these is a metal trough, like a piece of the water gutter used under the eaves 
of buildings. This can be either attached to the wall or placed in a partition. 
A similar grit trough is easily made of wood, by making a short V-shaped 
trough with the angle of the sides very acute. In one side holes can be bored 
by which to hang the trough to nails driven into the wall at a suitable height 
from the floor. Boxes for grit and shell are sometimes made with hopper-like 
receptacles for a store of grit, the bottom of the box being a tray into which 
the grit feeds from the hopper as fast as taken from the tray. 




Fig. 43. 



Fig. 42. Common A-shaped Coop. 



A-Shaped Coop with Pen and Movable 
Shelter Board. 



57. Coops for Broody Hens. — A small coop built into a corner of each 
laying pen, close to the roof, is a common provision for breaking up broody 
hens. Such a coop should be triangular. The outside wall forms one side, the 
cross partition the other. The front should be of slats, one or two of them 
being movable to admit the hens. Detached coops, having slat bottoms are 
often used, and are by some preferred, because the hens have to roost on the 
slats, and cannot continue brooding, as some hens will, in a corner of the 
coop. 

58. Coops for Little Chicks. — Of these there is an almost endless 
variety, conforming generally to one of two plans ; they are either ^-shaped or 
box coops. Fig. 42 shows a common ^-shaped coop, without floor or coop- 
pen for the hen. Fig. 43 shows another style of ^-coop with partly closed 
front, coop-pen, and movable shelter board to keep out sun and rain. This 

coop may be made either 
with or without floor. A 
permanent floor in a coop 
of this shape is objection- 
able because of the diffi- 
culty of keeping the corners 
between floor and sides 
clean. This can be over- 
come by using a movable 
floor, which is easily made 
to slide in grooves formed 
by cleats near the bottom, (inside), of the sides of the roof. The coop from 
which the illustration was taken was of matched flooring, the sides of the 
roof 22 x 2S in., the angle between them a right angle ; the coop pen 4 ft. long. 




Fig. 44. Convenient Box Coop with Knock-down Pen. 



POULTR 7'- CRA FT. 



57 



In Fig. 44 is shown a cheap and convenient box coop with "knock-down" 
coop-pen. This coop is 22 x 24 in. — -outside measure, — on the ground ; 24 in. 
high in front, and 16 in. high in rear. When made of these dimensions and 
of 10-in. boards the waste of material amounts to almost nothing. In the coop 
illustrated the standard of the door moves in a slot cut in the roof. The roof 
is nailed fast. The coop is cleaned by tipping the dirt to the back, then to 
corner opposite the door, then out through the door, the hen being meantime 
confined to the pen by a screen of lath placed across the end left open by the 
tipping back of the coop. Complete ventilation is insured by boring large 
auger holes in the door and in the upper part of the front ; or, a crack an inch 




Fig. 45. Cat and Hawk Proof Coops. (By courtesy of " A Few Hens.") 

wide may be left clear across the front. For spring and summer use it is 
better to leave the joints, between boards on the sides, uncovered. The 
joints in the roof should be covered with strips of lath or batten. The slide 
door can be placed outside if desired. Coops of this style are often made 
with hinged roofs, sometimes with only a part of the roof, or the lower half of 
the back on hinges to allow the coop being cleaned without being moved. A 
point to be always observed in making a coop of this kind is : if the roof is 
nailed fast, the door must be next a corner, to facilitate cleaning. The coop 
pen shown in the figure is 4 ft. long, 2 ft. high, 2 ft. wide between the side 
rails. The top and bottom rails are of i.-in stuff' 2 in. wide. The sides and 
end are made separate ; then the end is nailed to the sides, cross braces of lath 



5S 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



nailed to the lower edges of the top side rails, the laths put on the top, the last 
lath at the open end being 4 in. from the ends of the side rails ; a single strip 
of lath is nailed to the lower edge of the bottom side rails 4 in. from the end, 
and the pen is complete. When coop and pen are placed together, the ends 
of the side rails overlap the sides of the coop, and fitting snugly, hold the pen 
firmly in place. The coop is taken apart by simply taking off the top laths, 
removing braces, and knocking out the end. The spaces between the slats 
should be : on top, 3 in. ; on sides, 2^ in. for medium to small hens, 3 in. for 
medium to large ones. The material for a coop and pen as shown in the 
figure will cost about fifty cents. 

Cat and Hawk Proof Coop. — Fig. 45 shows a good coop to use where 
cats and hawks are troublesome. The feature of the coop is the pen 2 ft. wide, 
2 ft, high, and 12 ft. long, of lath and covered with i-inch mesh wire netting. 
Moved to new ground every day or two, this coop makes it possible to raise 
chicks without loss, where, with ordinary coops, losses from the causes, 
mentioned would be ruinous. Both houses and pen are "knock-downs." 
The house coop is made of light, f-in. lumber, each surface making one piece. 
Strips of lath are used as cleats to hold together the boards making a piece- 
When the coop is set up the pieces are secured with screws. Such a coop,, 
with pen, costs, including labor, about five dollars. 



59. Roosting Coop for Growing Chicks. — Fig. 46 shows a roosting 
coop of the general type used for growing stock when on summer range in 

fields and meadows. The front is 
sometimes all of lath or netting, 
sometimes boarded part "way down, 
and sometimes made close with tight 
door and movable window. A coop 
■with the front last mentioned can be 
used in cold weather. These roost- 
Fig. 46. Roosting Coop for Growing Chicks. ing coops are usually without floors. 
They should be of a size easily handled — 6 to 8 ft. long, about 3 ft. wide, 
2 to 2% ft. high in rear, and 3 to 3^ ft. high in front. Two roosts are placed 
in each pen about a foot from the ground. Coops of this kind can be bought 
in knock-down bundles at reasonable prices. 




60. Incubators. — The large poultry keeper takes it for granted that 
incubators are to be a part of his equipment. A few of the older breeders, 
whose trade is principally in stock and exhibition birds, still hatch with hens ; 
but for producing broilers and pullets in quantities for early layers, the 
artificial is the reliable method. On most large plants where hens are used 
their work is complementary to that of the machines. The small poultry 
keeper is often at a loss to know which method of hatching to use. It depends 
■on the person as much as on circumstances. Some people cannot run an 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 59 

incubator, or a machine of any kind, for three weeks without having some- 
thing go wrong. Again, there are those who " have no luck " hatching: with 
hens, yet are fairly successful with machines. So that it is difficult to frame 
a rule which can be uniformly applied. It may be said, however, that a 
poultry plant, though small, which is concerned with the production of early 
layers, or is stocked mostly with hens of non-sitting breeds, ought not to be 
dependent on hens for hatching. And, considering the degree of efficiency to 
which incubators have been brought, the practice of most progressive poultry- 
men, and the tendency toward a more general use of artificial methods, it is 
safe to advise that whenever more than two or three hundred chickens are to 
be hatched the incubator should be the main reliance. To the considerations 
named, add that the incubator is always ready for work. It is seen that even 
those who hatch annually less than two hundred chicks may find an incubator 
invaluable. Though in many cases hatching with hens is cheaper, and there 
are times — (as in hatching small lots of eggs from different pens, or of 
different varieties) — when a machine cannot well be used, a poultry keeper 
entirely dependent on hens for hatching is in a bad fix when the hens fail 
him. Delay in getting broody hens is one of the commonest causes of loss 
and disappointment in small poultry yards. 

It is wiser to buy an incubator than to attempt to make one. Good 
incubators are sold at such low prices that there is little inducement to risk a 
homemade machine, though it were cheaper, which is to say the least, doubt- 
ful. The selection of a machine need not be the perplexing question some 
make it. Results with the best machines do not differ greatly. There are, 
to be sure, poor machines on the market ; but it is easy to learn what machines 
are in use on the large market poultry plants where poor machines are not 
tolerated. If the beginner has to learn, unassisted, to run his machine, it will 
matter little which of the popular makes he buys. If a particular machine is 
being operated in his vicinity by some one who will give him instruction in 
incubator management, it is clearly to his advantage to buy a machine of 
that make. 

61. Brooders. — Brooders are used even more generally than incubators. 
Many hatch with hens, and rear in brooders. Where incubators ai"e used 
brooders are used as a matter of course. Brooder houses are an important 
part of a large plant. For small operations, either a small pipe system, an 
indoor brooder — in a house pen, or a detached brooder house — or an outdoor 
brooder, which needs no house, is used. What was said of homemade 
incubators is equally true of homemade brooders. Brooders can be purchased 
either direct from the manufacturers, or through dealers in poultry supplies. 
Pipe systems for any size of house desired are sold complete with full 
instructions for putting up, and sometimes with detailed plans of houses best 
suited for use with the system. In buying separate brooders it is well to 
"emember that manufacturers usually overrate the capacity of brooders, that 



6o POUL TR T- CRAFT. 

the use of brooders of large capacity is not generally approved by experts, 
and that allowance must be made for the growth of chicks. 

62. Feed Cookers. — Wherever a large stock of hens is kept, provision 
should be made for cooking the mash- On plants where a steam boiler is 
used, food is cooked in steam jacket kettles. Where steam is not available, 
set kettles — or, more commonly of late years, feed cookers, specially con- 
structed stoves with large boilers — are used. For baking johnnycake for 
chicks, an oil or gas stove with oven may be used. 

63. Feed Mixers. — Patented machines for mixing feed, either wet or 
dry, are on sale. Poultrymen who mix mill stuffs in proportions to suit 
themselves, will find it worth while to examine them. 

64. Bone Cutters. — It is often hard to decide whether to use a bone 
cutter or buy prepared meat foods. Green cut bone is considered the best 
cut food of the kind ; but it is not always possible to get fresh bone regularly, 
nor is it always economy for the poultryman to spend time and strength in 
running a bone cutter. Where the commercial products can be had without 
the addition of heavy freight bills to the cost price, it is more satisfactory to 
use them ; elsewhere it is better to use the bone cutter. Many poultrymen cut 
as much green bone as they can, and also use prepared foods. 

65. Grit Crushers. — There are few places where, if the commercial 
grits are not on sale, a natural substitute cannot be found. Wherever there is 
a crravel bed grit is^easy to get. In the far west many poultry keepers use the 
coarse gravel from the large ant hills for grit. For those who must manu- 
facture the grit they use, it is better, and in the end cheaper, to buy a grit 
crusher than to use primitive methods of grit making. The cost of the 
machines is small. 

66. Hay Cutters are indispensable where many fowls are kept. On 
farms the hay for the hens can be cut in the large hay cutter gauged to its 
shortest cut. If a cutter is to be bought to cut hay for hens, one of the small 
machines made for poultrymen is preferable. 

67. Miscellaneous. — In addition to the things specially mentioned in 
the preceding paragraphs, a poultryman's outfit includes: pails, for feed and 
water; scoops and spoons, or trowels for feeding; large coal buckets, for 
collecting droppings; hoes, rakes, shovels, forks, brooms, a wheelbarrow, etc. 

Note. — Articles used particularly in dressing and marketing fowls will be described 
in the chapter devoted to those topics. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 61 



CHAPTER V. 



Fowls Described.* 

68. Kinds of Fowls. — Common or Mongrel. — Old dunghill stock 
more or less improved by irregular infusions of pure blood. 

Fowls produced by indiscriminate crossings of pure breeds. 

Cross bred, — produced from cross matings of pure breeds — usually applied 
only to the offspring of a first cross — further crossing producing either grades 
or mongrels, according as it is systematic or indiscriminate. 

Grade, — produced by systematic crosses of a pure breed on another pure 
breed, or on common stock. 

Pure bred, — thoroughbred, — the product of, a union of typical specimens 
of its breed or variety, which, when mated to the breed type of the opposite 
sex produces offspring of both sexes true to type. 

Standard bred\ — bred to conform to the description of the breed or 
variety in the American Poultry Association's J Standard. 

♦Note.- In the poultryman's vocabulary the word "fowl," used without a qualifying- 
word, as water-fowl, guinea-io\\\, always means "chicken" — specifically an adult 
chicken; while the words "chicken," and "chick," are applied to the young of the 
fowl. 

t Note. —The terms, "standard bred," and "thoroughbred," are often used as- 
synonyms, and in many cases are properly so used. Nearly all varieties which become 
at all popular are " admitted " to the Standard, and nearly all the varieties described in 
the Standard are thoroughbred. There are, however, pure breeds not recognized by the 
American Poultry Association, and fowls of recognized varieties may be pure in blood 
and well bred without conforming strictly to Standard requirements. The Standard 
color requirements for some varieties are such that the best types of the different sexes 
are produced from different matings, only one parent in each case being of the type 
desired in the offspring. Fowls bred in this way are in reality first crosses of distinct 
types of the same pure breed. There are some breeders of all varieties for which the 
system of double matings is used who use single matings, and produce stock that is 
thoroughbred and standard bred — though not, perhaps, reaching as high a degree of 
excellence as stock from the double matings. 

Recognition by the American Poultry Association is not an indication of the popularity 



62 POULTR T- CRA FT. 

69. Comparison of the Kinds of Fowls. — With other than pure bred 
fowls the progressive poultry keeper has little to do. With common or 
mongrel fowls he concerns himself least of all. That some mongrel hens are 
healthier and more prolific than some high class stock, is true. The converse 
of the proposition is equally true. As between all common hens and all pure 
bred hens, there is little to be said for common hens. The experience of 
most of those who are thoroughly familiar with both classes of stock has been 
that, with rare exceptions, they could get better practical results from thor- 
oughbreds taken at random than from the most carefully selected common 
stock. The pure bred fowl is the result of selections extending through a 
long course of years. However faulty selection may at times have been from 
the economic point of view, the general result has been infinitely better than 
the natural selection which was given free course in the common fowls. It 
is not advised that a flock of mongrels doing well or fairly well be discarded 
out of hand, and a new beginning made with pure bred stock. It is advised 
that the mongrels be either graded up to the type of thoroughbred best suited 
to the keeper's purpose, or be gradually replaced with thoroughbred stock. 

As between cross and pure bred fowls, it may be said that rarely is there 
produced a cross the good qualities of which cannot be paralleled in one or 
more pure breeds. Grades having three-fourths or more of the blood of a 
pure breed will usually be on a par in utility qualities with the average of that 
breed. Crossing and grading are ordinarily to be resorted to only for the 
purpose of utilizing stock on hand. They are emergency methods. A poul- 
tryman who continuously produces fowls of impure blood throws away one 
of his best chances of profit ; for in the long run it costs no more to produce 
pure stock ; and while sometimes pure stock of good quality has to be sold at 
the market price for poultry, it is certain that crosses and grades will not 
at any time bring much more than market prices — not often enough more to 
pay for advertising and cooping for shipment. It is the hereditary fixedness 
of certain desirable qualities and characters that gives the popular varieties of 
pure bred fowls — (whether bred for utility or fancy) — their superiority as 
money makers. 

or value of a breed. Breeds ana varieties which never become popular with any class of 
poultry keepers are recognized in the Standard, while useful breeds quite widely popular 
are rejected. Of more than seventy varieties of fowls, (excluding bantams), described in 
the Standard, less than half are popular, — i. e., varieties commonly bred; and of these 
less than half, again, are popular in the sense of being commonly and extensively bred, — 
bred by those who keep fowls on a large scale. 

+Note. — American Poultry Association, — an organization of poultry breeder., and 
fanciers, composed of persons who, their applications having been approvec. by vote of 
the association, become life members on payment of a fee of $10. Though not a 
representative organization, its Standard descriptions are accepted by nearly all poultry- 
men, even those who breed for economic purposes breeding to Standard types as closely 
as they can without sacrificing utility qualities — as would be done in some cases by strict 
adherence to the Standard. 



POULTR T- CRA FT. 63 

70. Relative Merits of Pure Bred Fowls. — It was said of situation 
that fowls could be kept -wherever men could live. It might be said of the 
different varieties of fowls, that there is hardly one that could not be made 
•commercially profitable even by market poultrymen and farmers. People 
who keep fowls for profit want not profit merely, but the greatest possible 
profit. The common experience of poultry keepers has sifted from the great 
number of varieties the few which with ordinarily good care and housing will 
yield the largest and surest returns. These are usually spoken of as the 
" practical breeds." It will be seen as the vai-ieties are described that often a 
single feature makes a variety objectionable for some purposes. This point 
will be considered more fully in the next chapter. It is mentioned here that 
the reader may keep it in mind when making comparisons of varieties. He 
will thus better understand how it is that the money making ranks of some 
excellent varieties are lower than their merits seem to deserve, and why it is 
that of two varieties nearly equal in average merit one may be very much 
better adapted to some special purpose than the other. 

71. Terms Explained. — A few terms used in desci-ibing varieties need 
explanation. 

Fowls are often classed according to economic qualities, as " egg breeds," 
" meat breeds," " general purpose breeds." Such terms describe the prom- 
inent characteristic of the common type of a breed, and indicate the purpose 
for which flocks of the breed are commonly kept. Of so-called " egg breeds," 
the most typical examples are Leghorns and Minorcas ; of the " meat breeds," 
there are three distinct types represented by the Brahma, the Dorking and the 
Cornish Indian Game ; of "general purpose breeds," Plymouth Rocks and 
Wyandottes are familiar illustrations. It must not be thought that fowls of 
the " meat breeds " are not good layers ; or that good poultry cannot be pro- 
duced from the egg breeds; or that "general purpose breeds" unite in 
perfection all the good qualities of domestic fowls. The "general purpose 
fowl " is a combination fowl of a type intermediate between the " egg " type 
and the Brahma "meat" type. General purpose breeds combine a high 
degree of excellence as egg producers with great merit as table poultry, and 
especially with adaptability to being fitted for the market at any time after 
reaching broiler size. Some breeders of Brahmas and Cochins breed fowls 
which for profitable egg production crowd the best " egg breeds," and some 
breeders of the Mediterranean varieties prefer a type of fowl which is easily 
made profitable as poultry. Thus the choice of breeds is not always as 
limited as the general descriptions would imply. 

Very hardy is applied to the breeds best able to resist exposure and 
unfavorable conditions. Hardy is applied to breeds which under ordinary 
conditions are generally free from disease. Fairly hardy is used to describe 
breeds requiring a little extra attention to keep them free from disease. 
Rather delicate, delicate, and very delicate, are used to express, as nearly as 



64 PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 

possible, the relative vigor of the less hardy breeds. All these terms should 
be understood as of general application describing the average of the breed, 
not specimens or flocks noticeably better or worse than the average. 

So the words, " sitters," and " non-sitters," must be understood as express- 
ing general characteristics. It is doubtful whether there are any breeds 
strictly non-sitters. In nearly all of the so-called non-sitting varieties hens 
are sometimes found which show the desire to incubate. This does not 
necessarily indicate impurity of blood. In some of the "sitting" varieties 
are whole families or "strains" in which the desire to incubate is nearly 
lost.* 

Eggs are usually classed according to color of shell, as "white" or 
" brown." In the white egg breeds the shells of the eggs are not pure white, 
but slightly tinted with a cream or flesh color. Hens of these breeds rarely 
lay eggs that are even a very light brown. In the colors of shells of the eggs 
of the brown egg breeds there is great variety, — tints ranging from a rich 
brown to creamy white. The very dark shelled eggs are usually character- 
istic of strains bred especially for market eggs. 

Descriptions of Pure Bred Fowls. t 

AMERICAN CLASS. 

72. Plymouth Rocks. — General Description. — Hardy; general purpose ; 
brown egg breed ; sitters ; medium to large in size. Standard weights, cock 
9I/2 lbs., cockerel 8 lbs., hen 7^ lbs., pullet 6^2 lbs. The typical Plymouth 
Rock is a compactly built, strong, but not coarse boned fowl, the general 
contour of the body presenting the "wedge" shape so noticeable in a good 
dairy cow. This is more readily seen in the females than in the males, whose 
more erect carriage and lesser abdominal development takes away somewhat 
the wedge-like appearance of body. In all varieties the comb is single J and 
serrated, in size medium to small ; ear lobes red, tail of medium length, and 
abundant. In beak, shanks and toes, deep yellow is the color coveted by 
fanciers. The skin should be yellow. 

*Note. — Those who raise chicks with hens will always find it worth while when buying 
stock, to learn something of its incubating propensities; otherwise they may be 
disappointed in getting early chicks, for besides those families in which the hatching 
instinct is bred out, there are others the hens of which regularly continue laving for from 
three to five or six months after beginning without going broody. 

tNoTE. — In describing varieties, a few non-Standard fowls, both domestic and foreign, 
are included with the classes to which they would naturally belong if admitted to the 
American Standard of Perfection, the arrangement of which is followed in these 
descriptions. The descriptions are not intended to be minutely exact. The purpose is 
to give to those not familiar with the varieties a general idea of the character and 
appearance of each, which if not entirely accurate, will not be misleading. 

+Note. — A variety with pea comb was admitted to the Standard, but failed to gain 
popular favor, and was subsequently dropped. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



65 




Barred Plymouth Rooks. — Fig. 47. — The ground color of plumage varies 

from grayish white to 
pale ashen blue. In 
the best colored speci- 
mens the parallel bars 
crossing each feather 
run from leaden blue 
in light colored to blue 
black in dark speci- 
mens. In birds which 
fail in color the bar- 
ring is usually indis- 
tinct ; the dark bars 
show sometimes rusty 
red or brown, some- 
times a greenish tinge. 
Clear yellow legs and 
beaks are common in 

Fig. 47. Barred Plymouth Rocks. the ma j egj but not ill 

females, which oftener have a dark shading on the upper beak, and greenish 
shading or spots on the front of the leg. This variety is certainly the most 
popular of all with practical poultrymen, and, probably, also with fanciers. 
The difficulty of breeding it to the perfection of Standard color requirements, 
and the correspondingly high prices paid for first class specimens appeal 
strongly to the ambition and inter- 
est of the fancier-breeder. The 
double mating system is more 
generally practiced with this vari- 
ety than with any other. It takes 
a novice some years to learn to 
produce high class stock. As 
commonly bred for practical pur- 
poses, little attention is given to 
nice color points. 

White Plymouth Rocks. — 
Fig. 48. — Were long considered 
more delicate than the Barred 
variety. With increasing popu- 
larity and more careful breeding 
for vigor they have become rug- 
ged. The Standard description 
calls for a pure white plumage, 
and yellow legs and skin ; a com- Fig . 48< White plymouth Rocks . 




66 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 




bination difficult to get, and pro- 
nounced by many experienced breed- 
ers impossible to maintain. As a 
rule yellow legs and skin go with 
creamy white plumage, while a pure 
white plumage is accompanied by 
white or pink skin and faded yel- 
low or flesh colored legs and beak. 
J Practical breeders prefer the yellow 
legged fowls with a creamy white 
plumage, but avoid breeding from 
birds in whose plumage the yellow 
has unsightly prominence. 



Buff Plymouth Rocks. 



Fie 



Fig. 49. Buff Plymouth Rocks. 



49. — A new variety, rapidly gaining 
popular favor. As in all buff fowls, 
the desired color is a uniform shade 
of buff free from white or black. 
Though the equals of the other vari- 
eties in practical qualities, they are not a good kind for a beginner who wishes 
to sell a part of his stock for breeding purposes. The variety is not well 
established, though many very fine specimens are produced. The color is 
difficult to handle, and in unskillful hands the proportion of culls is too large 
for profit. It is usually better for novices to leave the development of new 
breeds to experts. Breeders who will be satisfied for a few years with a large 





:^< 




Fig. 50. White Wyandotte Pullet. 
(By courtesy of A. G. Duston). 



Fig. 51. White Wyandotte Cock. 
(By courtesy of Howland & Whitney). 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



67 



proportion of excellent fowls from the market standpoint, and a small percent 
of good Standard birds, will find the variety an interesting one to work with, 
and likely to prove immensely profitable in the future. 



73. Wyandottes. — General Description. 




Fig. 52. Silver Wyandottes. 



- Hardy ; general purpose ; 
brown egg breed ; sitters ; 
medium in size ; Standard 
weights, cock S% lbs. , cock- 
erel 7^ lbs., hen 6 1 /, lbs., 
pullet 5^ lbs. The distin- 
guishing characteristics of 
the breed are the peculiar 
blocky, chunky body and 
small neat rose comb. Ear 
lobes are red ; beak and legs 
yellow ; tail medium length 
— abundant. In practical 
values they are generally 
rated with the Plymouth 
Rocks, but are less widely 
popular than that breed. 

Silver Wyandottes. 
Fig. 52. — In color black 
and white, distributed as 
shown in the cut. 



Golden Wyandottes. — Figs. 53, 54. — In color black and golden bay, 
the bay taking the place of the white in the Silver variety. 

Both of these varieties are difficult to breed to Standard colors. In some 
sections they (particularly the Silvers) are extensively kept by farmers. Both 
varieties are in demand among city poultry keepers, as their colors are not 
much disfigured by smoke, and they are not restive in close quarters. 

White Wyandottes. — This variety is the most formidable competitor the 
Barred Plymouth Rock has had to meet. The remarks on color of plumage, 
skin, etc., of White Plymouth Rocks, apply also to White Wyandottes. 
They are easy to breed uniform enough to satisfy a taste that is not fastidious 
about fancy points. This, and the absence of dark pinfeathers has brought 
them into high favor with practical poultry men. 

Black, and Buff Wyandottes. — After what has been said of the breed 
in general these need little description further than the naming of their colors. 
Black Wyandottes have never been popular with any class of poultry keepers. 
Buff Wyandottes are a new variety, and with Buff P. Rocks are strong com- 
petitors for the patronage which has been going to Barred P. Rocks and 



6S 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 




White Wyandottes. The remarks on 
breeding Bnff P. Rocks apply also to 
Buff Wyandottes. 

74. Javas. — Black and Mottled. 

Fig- 55- — Javas are fairly hardy, 
resemble Plymouth Rocks in general 
characters, and have the same Standard 
weights. They are longer bodied than 
||the Plymouth Rocks. Their legs are 
-_. willow colored. In most parts of the 
country they are rare. Mottled Javas 
are "black and white in color. There 
is a white variety, very rare, and no 
longer recognized by the Standard. 



Fig. 53. Golden Wyandotte Cockerel . 
(By courtesy of Ira Kellar). 

75. American Dominiques. — 

Fairly hardy ; sitters ; were at one time 
a very popular practical breed ; super- 
seded by the Barred Plymouth Rocks, 
which resemble them in color. Dom- 
iniques have rose combs, like those of 
Rose Comb Leghorns ; red ear lobes ; 
yellow beaks and legs ; full, flowing -^ 
tails. 





Fig- 55. Black Java Hen. 



Fig. 54. Golden Wyandotte Hen. 
(By courtesy of Ira Kellar). 

76. White Wonders. — (Non-Stand- 
ard) . — Hardy ; general purpose ; brown 
egg breed ; sitters ; large medium in size. 
They somewhat resemble White Wyan- 
dottes, but are larger, and have lightly 
feathered shanks. They are quite popular 
among farmers and poultrymen in some 
localities, but are not much esteemed by 
fanciers. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



6 9 



77. Rhode Island Reds. — (Non- Standard). — Hardy; general purpose; 
brown egg breed; sitters; large medium in size. In color they are of a red- 
dish buff, with a strong tendency to the black red color combination in the 
males. They are only locally popular, but are becoming celebrated for hardi- 
ness and prolific laying. In meat qualities they are considered inferior to the 
other American varieties. 



ASIATIC CLASS. 

78. Light Brahmas. — Fig. 56. — Very hardy; meat breed ; large brown 

eggs ; sitters ; the largest vari- 
ety of fowls. The Standard 
weights, cock 12 lbs., cockerel 
10 lbs., hen 9^ lbs., pullet S 
lbs. Colors, black and white, 
as seen in the cut, except that 
in the flight feathers of the 
w T ings, not visible when folded, 
black largely predominates. 
They have pea combs ; red ear 
lobes ; short, full, spreading 
tails ; beaks yellow, with horn 
IX^ colored stripe on upper bill; 
yellow skin and legs ; the outer 
sides of shanks, and outer and 
$ middle toes heavily feathered. 
Light Brahmas are very popu- 
lar with poultry keepers of all 
classes. Though considered a 







Fig. 56. Light Brahmas. 



meat breed, they are good layers when 
handled properly, and they produce the 
most of their eggs when eggs bring the 
highest prices. If managed and fed right 
the chicks make good broilers or frys, and 
as large roasters the full-grown fowls are 
unsurpassed among pure bred fowls. 

79. Dark Brahmas. — Fig. 57. — 
Hardy ; meat breed ; brown eggs ; sitters. 
Except for their pea combs they would 
be classed by a novice as silver or gray 
Cochins. In shape they are between 
Light Brahmas and Cochins. Standard 
weights are : cock 1 1 lbs., cockerel 9 lbs., 







Fig. 57. Dark Brahmas. 



7 o 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT 



hen Sj4 lbs., pullet 7 lbs., the same as for Buff, Partridge and White Cochins. 
In color they are white, gray and. black combined as seen in the cut. Dark 
Brahmas are rather difficult to breed to color, and can hardly be considered 
popular, but are good and useful fowls. 

General Description. — Very hardy ; of all breeds the 
least influenced by climatic or 
other changes, and least restive in 
confinement ; brown eggs ; very 
persistent sitters ; combs single, 
serrated, small to medium in size ; 
ear lobes red ; plumage long, 
loose, fluffy ; legs and toes heavily 
feathered. (On many of the heav- 
ily feathered exhibition Cochins 
the inner as well as the outer 
side of the shank is feathered). 
Cochins are generally considered 
inferior to Brahmas, both for eggs 
and meat. When bred to good 
breast development, fair specimens 
are quite the equals of the Brah- 
mas as roasters. When bred for 
eggs they rival the best Brahmas 
as layers. As fanciers' fowls the 
Fig. 58. Buff Cochins. Buff and Partridge varieties in 

particular have many admirers. 
Probably the highest prices ever 
given for fowls in this country 
have been given for Buff Co- 
chins. Breeding to excessive 
feathering has prejudiced prac- 
tical breeders against all varie- 
ties of Cochins. 

Buff Cochins. — Fig. 58. — 
Standard weights, cock 11 lbs., 
cockerel 9 lbs., hen S^2 lbs., 
pullet 7 lbs. ; color of skin and 
legs yellow ; are the most pop- 
ular variety. The prescribed 
color is a rich, deep, clear buff, 
uniform on each specimen. As 
there are differences of opinion 
as to what buff is, all shades 
are seen, from a pale lemon to Fig. 59. Partridge Cochins. 





PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



7i 



a reddish brown ; the lighter shades are 
generally preferred. Great skill in 
mating and handling is required to pro- 
duce really fine specimens ; but good 
birds are always salable at high figures. 

Partridge Cochins. — Fig. 59. — 
Weights, color of skin and legs same 
as for Buff Cochins. In color this vari- 
ety shows the black red type, difficult 
to describe, but familiar to everyone in 
the Brown Leghorns. They are quite 
difficult to breed to Standard colors. 
Though not generally popular, they are 
in some localities quite extensively kept 
^:^X' J *£^ ~* J /'^i ,tX f° r practical purposes. 

White Cochins. — Fig. 60.— Black 
Fig. 60. white Cochin Hen. Cochins. — These varieties are less 

common than the two foregoing. White Cochins have yellow legs and skin; 
Standard weights the same as for the Buff and Partridge. Black Cochins have 
yellow skin; and legs black or dark willow. The Standard weights are the 
same as for the other varieties, except cock 10^ lbs. 




81. Langshans. — General Description. — Fairly hardy; dark brown 
egg breed — eggs sometimes have a purplish tinge; sitters; large medium 

in size ; Standard weights, cock 10 lbs., 
cockerel 8. lbs., hen 7 lbs., pullet 6 lbs. ; 
medium sized single combs ; red ear 





Fig. 61. Black Langshan Cock. 



Fig. 62. Black Langshan Hen. 



72 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



lobes ; shanks and toes feathered, but not as heavily as shanks of Brahmas and 
Cochins. Beaks dark horn color ; legs and toes bluish black ; bottoms of the 
feet pink or pinkish white. (Yellow skin and yellow in the bottoms of the 
feet are considered indications of Cochin blood). Langshan tails are larger 
than those of Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes, and carried well up. 

Black Langshans. — Figs. 61, 62. — Are popular among poultry keepers 
of all classes, except those making a specialty of market poultry. Their white 
skin and dark shanks are against them in American markets. They are partic- 
ularly well suited to smoky towns where white and light colored birds soon 
become eye-sores to their owners. They are good winter layers, and make 
good poultry for home use. 

White Langshans are not popular. They are useful and beautiful fowls, 
but the field for white fowls with their general characteristics has been occupied 
by other varieties. 

MEDITERRANEAN CLASS. 

82. Leghorns. — General Description. — Hardy; white egg breed ; non- 
sitters ; small to small medium in 
size ; no special weights required 
by the Standard ; all varieties have 
white or creamy white ear lobes, 
smooth yellow legs, long and full 
tails. Leghorns are reputed the 
egg fowls par excellence. More 
people can get satisfactory egg 
yields from Leghorns than from 
any other breed. This is because 
Leghorns are generally hardier 
than the other white egg breeds, 
and are not so easily put out of 
condition by overfeeding as are 
fowls of heavier breeds. There is 
a strong tendency among Leghorn 
breeders to breed to a larger type 
than in the past. When bred to 
a good size, Leghorns make first 
class broilers, and very fair small 

Fig. 63. Pair of White Leghorns. roasters 

Brown Leghorns. — Fig. 64. — There are two sub-varieties differing only 
in shape of comb and in popularity. The Single Combed Brown Leghorns 
are the most widely distributed of the Leghorn family. Rose Combed Brown 
Leghorns are not one-tenth as numerous. Brown Leghorns are the most com- 
mon example of the black red color combination in fowls— colors so familiar 
everywhere that they need no general description. They are commonly rated 




PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



73 




Fig. 64. Brown Leghorns. 



better layers than the other 
Leghorns, though on the av- 
erage their eggs are smaller 
than those of the White and 
Buff varieties. They may be 
said to be both easy and hard 
to breed. An inexperienced 
breeder, not versed in the 
fine points of the breed can 
produce stock much more 
satisfactory to himself than 
would come from his inex- 
pert matings of Barred Ply- 
mouth Rocks, or Silver Wy- 
andottes. At the same time 
a trained fancier seeking to 
produce the finest Standard 
specimens finds his task hard 
enough to give zest to the 
•work. 



White Leghorns. — Fig. 63. — There are two sub- varieties, Single Combed 
and Rose Combed, having about the same relative popularity as corresponding 
sub-varieties of Brown Leghorns. Generally thought a little less hardy than the 
Browns. They average larger in size, and lay larger eggs. White Leghorns 
are extensively used on the large egg farms supplying the New York market. 

Black Leghorns. — Single Comb. 
Not very commonly bred, because una- 
ble to compete with the Black Minorcas, 
which are in the same class, and are 
larger. The legs of Black Leghorns 
are not clear yellow, but a yellowish 
black or willow. 

Buff Leghorns. — Single Comb. 
Fig. 65. — The remarks regarding other 
new buff varieties apply to this one. 
The variety is still in process of making, 
and will not give satisfaction to those 
who want to produce a large propor- 
tion of high class birds, and know what 
a good bird should be. For all practi- 
cal purposes they rival the best stocks 
of other varieties of Leghorns. They 
are not popular in the broad sense of 
the word, but in view of the increasing Fig . 65> Buff Leg hom Cock. 




74 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 




Fig. 66. 

(By 



Rose Comb 
courtesy of 



Brown Leghorn Cock. 
Kerlin & Son). 



demand for buff fowls, a breeder planning 
for the future may find it profitable to 
develop a stock of Buff Leghorns. 

Other Varieties of Leghorns are: 

Dominique. — (Non-Standard), rare; 
resembling Barred Plymouth Rocks in 
color. 

Silver Duckwing. — Not common ; 
males look much like Brown Leghorns in 
which the red of the plumage is replaced 
by white ; females are mostly light gray ; 
light salmon in front of neck and breast; 
black or dark brown predominating in 
the tail. 



Fig. 67. — Fairly hardy; large 



83. Minorcas. — Black Minorcas. 
white egg breed ; non-sitters ; me- 
dium in size ; Standard weights, 
cock 8 lbs., cockerel 6)4 lbs., 
hen 6y 2 lbs., pullet 5^ lbs. ; very 
large, single combs; white or 
creamy white ear lobes ; white 
skin ; slate colored legs ; large, 
full tails. Minorcas are longer .- 
and deeper bodied than Leghorns, |" 
and have not the wild, nervous 
disposition of fowls of that breed. 
They are extra good layers of 
very large eggs, and make poul- 
try choice for home use, but not 
marketable at best prices. They 
have their greatest popularity in 
the vicinity of New York and on 
the Pacific coast, and in these 
localities they are bred to equal or 
exceed Standard weights ; but in 
many other sections the Minorcas generally are small, and not to be distin- 
guished from Black Leghorns. 

White Minorcas — are much less popular than the Black, which they 
resemble in every respect but color. With all white plumage they have beak 
and legs pinkish white. 

84. Blue Andalusians. — Fairly hardy; large white egg breed; non- 
sitters ; no Standard weights. In shape and size between Leghorns and 




Fig. 67. 



Black Minorcas. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



75 







..-«.,- -^mst.^^ 






Minorcas. Color of plumage, 
light blue laced with darker 
blue, except that necks, backs, 
and tails in both sexes are dark 
blue, and in wings the flight 
feathers are light blue, the rest 
of the wing being darker blue. 
The legs are a slaty blue. An- 
dalusians are not popular. 

85. White Faced Black 
Spanish. — Fig. 68. — ■ Very 
delicate as chicks, but fairly 
hardy after first few months ; 
large white egg breed ; non-sit- 
ters ; peculiar characteristic, 



!,?», 



..I";-; 



^/4 



Fig. 68. White Faced Black Spanish. 

the abnormal development of the skin of the 
face, white in color. In general they resemble 
Black Minorcas. Were once quite popular; 
are now comparatively rare. 

86. Polish. — Varieties: White Crested 
Black, Golden Spangled, (Fig. 69), Gold- 
en Penciled, Silver Spangled, Silver 
Penciled, White, Buff Laced. With the 








Fig. 70. Silver Spangled Hamburgs 




Fig. 69. Spangled Polish. 
(By courtesy of D. Lincoln Orr) . 

exception of the first and 
last mentioned these varie- 
ties are sub-divided into the 
bearded and non-bearded. 
Not one of these varieties is 
popular and common ; all 
are regarded as distinctive- 
ly fanciers' fowls. Even 
among fanciers the demand 
for them is small. Only a 
few breeders find it profita- 
ble to handle them. They 
are about the size of average 
Leghorns ; delicate ; white 



76 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 




egg breed ; non-sitters ; very large crests ; small V-shaped combs ; white ear 
lobes ; slatish or willow legs ; large, full tails. They are good layers, gener- 
ally, and their flesh is of fine quality. 

87. Hamburgs. — Varieties : Golden Spangled, Golden Penciled, 
Silver Spangled, (Fig. 70), Silver Penciled, (Fig. 71), White, Black. 

Hamburgs do not greatly 
differ from the Polish except 
in furnishings of the head. 
They have neither crest nor 
beard ; have rose combs like 
those of Rose Combed Leg- 
horns ; are rather delicate ; a 
white egg breed ; are non-sit- 
ters ; more numerously bred 
than Polish, and considered 
better for practical purposes, 
but are altogether outclassed 
by the hardier Leghorns. 
Hamburgs are bred princi- 
pally by those keeping fowls 
for pleasure. 

Fig. 71. Silver Penciled Hamburg Cock. 

88. Redcaps. Rather delicate ; white egg breed ; non-sitters ; have been 
aptly described as extra large, coarse Hamburgs with red ear lobes. Their 
colors are red brown and purple black distributed as in Spangled Hamburgs, 
except that the spangles of Redcaps are crescent shaped. Rare. 

FRENCH CLASS. 

89. Houdans. — Fig. 72. — The only breed in this class common enough 
in America to warrant de- 
scription in a popular book. 
The other French breeds, La 
Fleche and Crevecoeur, 
recognized by the Standard, 
are rarely seen here. Hou- 
dans, while not popular or 
numerous, are fairly well 
distributed, and are not unfa- 
miliar in most sections ; they 
are a rather delicate, white 
egg breed ; non-sitters ; col- 
ors black and white mottled, 
black predominating in the 
young fowls ; large crests Figi 72 




PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



77 



and beards ; V* s haped, leaf-like combs ; white ear lobes ; shanks pinkish white 
mottled with black, five toes on each foot ; are good layers, equaling Leg- 
horns in dry sunny situations ; make good poultry, not suited to American 
markets because of its color. Standard weights, cock 7 lbs., cockerel 6 lbs., 
hen 6 lbs., pullet 5 lbs. 

ENGLISH CLASS. 

90. Dorkings. — A delicate (except on a large, well drained range) meat 

breed ; inferior layers of eggs of medi- 
um color and size ; sitters ; bodies long, 
wide, deep ; five toes on each foot. 

White Dorkings. — Fig. 73. — The 
Standard weights are: cock 7^ lbs., 
cockerel 6^ lbs., hen 6 ibs., pullet 5 
lbs. ; rose comb ; red ear lobes. 

Silver Gray Dorkings. — Fig. 74. 
Standard weights, cock S lbs., cockerel 
7 lbs., hen 6^ lbs., pullet 514 lbs. ; 
single combs ; ear lobes, red preferred ; 
in color resemble Duckwing Leghorns. 

Colored Dorkings. — Standard 
weights, cock 9 lbs., cockerel 8 lbs., 
hen 7 lbs., pullet 6 lbs. ; combs either 
single or rose ; red ear lobes preferred ; 
colors richer and deeper than in the last 

named variety, the white of which is replaced by a straw color tending to 

black red. Colored Dorkings are bred 

to a fixed type only in shape. 

91. Orpingtons. — A new English 
breed. Hardy ; general purpose fowl. 
The breed was made especially for 
practical purposes, to produce eggs and 
meat. American breeders interested 
in fowls of that class, and disposed to 
experiment with Orpingtons are advised 
that such experiments are not apt to % 
prove profitable. Without disparaging 
this breed at all it may be said that it 
cannot compete here with the Ameri- 
can breeds of the same general class. 
Poultry keepers who want a good prac- 
tical fowl different from anything their Fig . 74 , silver Gray Dorking Cock. 




Fig. 73. White Dorking Hen. 

(By courtesy of "Poultry," England). 




7S 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



neighbors have, a consideration with some who keep poultry for pleasure, can 
get it in the Orpington. There are three established varieties: — Black, 
White, and Buff. In each variety there are single combed and rose combed 
sub-varieties. 



GAMES. 

92. Exhibition Games. — Fig. 75. — Pit Games. — There are two dis- 
tinct types of Game fowls. The exhibi- 
tion type is a bird very long in legs and 
neck, with stilted, crane-like carriage. 
The Pit Game is shorter in the leg, heavier 
in body, and a much better fowl for prac- 
tical purposes. In sections where cock- 
fighting still prevails flocks of Games are 
kept for domestic purposes quite as often 
as flocks of any other breed. They are 
rated hardy ; average layers of white or 
tinted eggs ; are sitters ; flesh makes fairly 
good poultry, but a trifle hard. Games 
cannot be considered as rivals of popular 
economic breeds. The color types in Pit 
Games are not well defined. They can 
hardly be classed as varieties. The Stand- 
ard varieties of Exhibition Games are : 
Black Breasted Red, Brown Red, Golden Duckwing, Silver Duck- 
wing, Red Pyle, White, Black, and Birchen. 




Fijj. 75. Exhibition Game Cock. 
(By courtesy of A. E. Blunck). 



93. Cornish Indian Games. — Not 

very hardy ; meat breed ; they are ordinary 
to poor layers of tinted eggs ; sitters ; pea 
combs ; red ear lobes ; yellow skin and 
legs ; Standard weights, cock 9 lbs., cock- 
erel 7^ lbs., hen 63^ lbs., pullet 5^ lbs. ; 
are very full in the breast, and broad at 
the shoulders ; back, convex instead of 
flat or concave, as in most other breeds. 
There are two varieties, the Dark, (Fig. 
76), and the White, (Fig. 77); — the 
former, in color, a very dark black red 
(crimson) ; the Standard requires in the 
female plumage with bay ground double 
— or triple — laced with black. Usually 
these markings are not well defined. 



#*» 




Fig. 76. Dark Indian Game Hen. 
(By courtesy of Adam Thompson). 



PO UL TRY- CRAFT. 



79 



94. Malay Games. — Nearly as large as Indian Games ; distinctive char- 
acteristics : — comb, a knob resembling a 
strawberry, dark red or purple in color ; 
and fierce expression due to breadth of 
skull over the eyes ; color black red, very 
dark ; a fanciers' fowl ; rare. 



95. Miscellaneous Breeds. — In this 
class the American Standard of Perfection 
places breeds prized mostly as novelties. 

Russians. — Black ; bearded, but not 
crested ; medium size ; rose comb without 
a spike. 

Sumatras. — Black; heavy, drooping 
tails ; dark red pea combs. 

Silkies. — Characteristic feature : web- 
less, hair-like feathers. 




Fig. 77. White Indian Game Cock. 
(By courtesy of E. M. & W. Ferguson). 



Sultans. — Resemble Bearded White Polish, but are smaller, and have 
feathered legs. 

Frizzles. — Have feathers curled backwards at the ends. 

Rumpless. — Tailless fowls. 

96. Foreign Breeds. — New Breeds. — In nearly every foreign country 
there are distinct breeds, popular there, which have no particular interest for 
the American poultry keeper because not suited to any general demand in this 
country. New breeds and varieties are continually coming up here, most of 
them being boomed by the manufacturers for a little while, and then going to 
a deserved oblivion. Beginners and plain poultrymen should avoid new and 
rare breeds. Not one in ten will " go" with the buying public, and nearly 
always those who take them up lose money on them. 



97. Complete Descriptions of nearly all varieties of fowls are given in 
the American Standard of Perfection, a book which ought to be in the hands 
of everyone who keeps pure bred fowls. Its descriptions are in skeleton 
form, but thoroughly cover the ground. Other books of great value to 
breeders are mentioned in the bibliography of poultry literature at the end 
of this volume. Complete descriptions cannot be given in a book like this, 
because in the first place they require a volume instead of a chapter; and, in 
the second place, the American Standard of Perfection, being the only general 
standard having the common indorsement, by usage, of poultrymen, complete 
descriptions would necessarily be based on it, and would have to be mere 



So 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



juggles of words to avoid infringement of its copyright. While the Standard 
was subject to revision every five years, many small breeders felt it a hardship 
to buy a book which might soon be of no value. Now that the Standard is 
practically a permanent one, they may purchase it confident that changes 
made in future will not make obsolete the book they possess. 

98. Abbreviations of Names of Varieties. — The abbreviations used in 
poultry papers and by poultry men in correspondence often puzzle those not 
familiar with the names of varieties. Abbreviations are sometimes partial, 
sometimes complete. The most common are : Light Brahma, Lt. Brahma, 
or Z. B.; Partridge Cochin, P. Cochin, or P. C. In names of Plymouth 
Rock varieties the Plymouth is often omitted, and sometimes the breed is 
spoken of simply as Rocks. Fully abbreviated, Barred Plymouth Rock 
becomes B. P. R. ; White Plymouth Rock, W. P. P.; Buff Plymouth 
Rock, Bf. P. R. (The advent of some of the new buff breeds has caused 
confusion in some minds, as, for instance, whether B. P. R. referred to 
Barred or to Buff Plymouth Rocks ; B. Leghorn, to Brown or to Buff Leg- 
horn. In all cases of this kind, common usage gives the abbreviation to the 
name of the variety for which it was first used, and puts the distinguishing mark 
on the abbreviation of the new name). The word Wyandotte is abbreviated 
to Wy., W., or to 'Dottes. Silver Wyandotte is abbreviated to S . Wy.; 
Golden Wyandotte, to G. Wy.; White Wyandotte, to W. Wy. S. C. 
B. L., stands for Single Comb Brown Leghorn; S. C. W. Z., for Single 
Comb White Leghorn; R. C. stands for Rose Comb. W. C. B. P. is 
the abbreviation for White Crested Black Polish; G. S. H., for Golden 
Spangled Hamburg; S. P. H., for Silver Penciled Hamburg; S.. G. D., for 
Silver Gray Dorking ; B. B. R. G., for Black Breasted Red Game ; C. I. G., 
for Cornish Indian Game — usually applied only to the dark variety ; B. JZ, 
for Black Minorca, etc. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 8 1 



CHAPTER VI. 



Choosing a Variety. — Buying Stock. 

99. One Variety or More. — "For best results, keep but one variety," 
say most experienced poultrymen. Few practice what they preach. It is 
not surprising, then, that their example has more weight than their precept. 
For most of those who keep fowls, one variety is enough. For many who 
want an income from poultry, one variety is not enough. " Circumstances 
alter cases." The general rule should be : — A flock (large or small) should 
not contain fowls of different varieties. The application of this rule would 
settle the question for most poultry keepers. For the others, a good rule is : — 
As many varieties should be kept as are needed to supply, to the limit of the 
capacity of a plant, the pay iitg demand for its special products. One may 
be enough. Even in an extreme case, it is not probable that more than three 
or four will be needed. 

An error market poultrymen ought to avoid is : — keeping two or three 
varieties or breeds which, practically, fill the same bill. It does not often 
happen that more than one variety is needed for an exclusive market poultry 
plant. A market poultryman who sells some stock for breeding purposes 
does not always find the demand for stock of his breeding, of one variety, 
large enough to take all his surplus. By using two or more varieties, he can 
get the same results in the market branch of his business, and, being in a 
position to supply a more varied demand, may sell a larger proportion of his 
stock at the prices obtained for breeders. Thus his increased sales of breeding 
stock would justify the expense of maintaining breeding stocks of several 
varieties. 

Except in the rare event of his having made a national reputation with a 
popular variety, a breeder-fancier needs several varieties. Even as a beginner, 
it is better that he should keep a varied stock. The results of his matings for 
the first few years are, if good, apt to be happy chances. Having several 
varieties, he will hardly fail to do fairly well with at least one of them. 
When a breeder's matings all disappoint him, his season's work is a total 
failure. Besides this, the beginner's position as a seller of good stock, is like 
that of the market poultryman who uses several varieties to better advantage 
than one. It would on the face of the matter seem wisest for the breeder to 
begin with one variety, adding others as he found demand for them, and as 
his skill in breeding increased ; but, as a matter of fact, it takes less skill to 
breed several varieties to a fair degree of excellence than to breed one variety 
to very high excellence. 



82 PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

100. Testing Varieties. — How to Get Satisfactory Stock. — It is 

only when one is no longer a novice that he is able to see clearly the absurdity 
of a beginner keeping a number of varieties to test their merit, or to find out 
which he likes best. The general experience of* poultry keepers is the best 
gauge of the relative merits of the breeds. The owner of several varieties 
usually comes to prefer that which is giving him best results. In buying 
stock of several varieties, one is not likely to get a uniform quality in all. It 
may easily happen that because he chanced to get extra good stock of an 
inferior, and poor stock of a superior variety, his short experience will lead 
him to prefer the one which in the long run gives poor results. Before decid- 
ing on a variety one should know its general character well enough to be sure 
that representative average specimens of that variety are fowls well suited to 
his purpose. Then if the fowls of the first purchase do not realize expecta- 
tions, and it is evident that the fault is with the stock — not in his manage- 
ment — let him try again, and again. It is not the variety that is now on 
trial ; it is the breeders of the variety. Stock of the kind wanted will be 
found more quickly and at less cost by limiting the search to the breeders of a 
single variety, than by extending it to the breeders of all varieties. 

101. Breeds for the Market Poultryman. — The market poultryman 
must have the fowls that yield the largest, best distributed (through the year), 
and surest returns when the products are sold at market prices. Ceitain 
small "-outs" in some varieties, of small moment to those who sell a con- 
siderable part of their stock at high prices for breeding or exhibition purposes, 
are not to be tolerated by the marketman. His business affords few opportu- 
nities for making large profits on a few sales compensate f or . small profits — 
or perhaps losses — on many sales. £hiick sales at living profits, must be 
the market poultryman's watchword. He must aim to have every article 
produced of a kind and grade always salable — convertible into cash at any time. 

The first point to consider is the demand of the market to be supplied. 

In most of the markets of this country strictly fresh eggs bring one price — 
regardless of color of the shell. In New York and vicinity white eggs ; in 
Boston and vicinity, brown eggs are preferred. In nearly all American cities 
yellow legged, yellow skinned poultry finds readiest sale. Everywhere the 
most active demand for grown fowls calls for carcasses of four to five pounds 
each, and the demand for fowls dressing six pounds or over, or under four 
pounds, is comparatively light.* 

A market poultryman sending produce to New York, will find that the 
trade wants large white eggs ; is not particular about the color of the skin or 
legs of poultry. The popular varieties laying large white eggs are, Brown 
and White Leghorns, Black Minorcas, with Buff Leghorns and, possibly, 

* Note. — This demand for medium sized fowls is not in any way dependent upon, or 
governed by, the quality of the meat. Medium sized fowls are in demand because they 
are of the size wanted by the greatest number of buyers. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. S3 

Houdans, entitled to mention, (in that section). It will be found that these 
varieties are relatively more popular in the country tributary to New York 
city than elsewhere ; — the three first named being those preferred by the 
large egg farmers. A beginner will do better to profit by their experience 
than to be governed by his personal preferences should they run counter to 
common experience. 

A market poultryman locating near Boston, will find Barred Plymouth 
Rocks, White Wyandottes, and White Plymouth Rocks most popular among 
market poultrymen using thoroughbred fowls. These varieties best fill the 
requirements of: — brown eggs, fitness for market at any age, and ease of 
preparation for market. He will find other varieties of the American and 
Asiatic classes often used by poultrymen, but not to anything like the extent 
those especially mentioned are used. 

The egg farmers of the Pacific coast seem to prefer hens of the Mediter- 
ranean class, saying their climate is particularly well suited to such fowls. 

The poultryman who wishes to build up a profitable trade must cater to the 
special demands of his market. If it were not for these demands there would 
be no business for the special egg and poultry farmer. As has been said, 
there is more than enough stock produced to fill the demand for inferior 
poultry of all sizes, as well as for stock of good quality, but not of the sizes 
and colors in demand. Popular preferences for certain colors of skin and 
shell are mere prejudices ; but it is the poultryman's business to supply what 
the people want, not to try to persuade them to want something else. When 
selecting his stock he must take varieties that will enable him to supply the 
demands most satisfactorily, and with greatest profit. 

102. Breeds for Profit, (Economic), on a Small Scale. — While the 
varieties recommended in the preceding section are the best suited to exclusive 
market poultry ing, many, even in the localities mentioned, who keep small 
flocks of poultry for profit (as an adjunct to another business) find other 
varieties just as profitable. Then if their taste prefers another variety it is a 
satisfaction to be able to gratify it without sacrificing profits. In a "brown 
egg" locality a poultry keeper whose fowls produce white eggs can easily find 
customers to take white eggs of best quality at the same price as brown eggs 
— but this trade is limited. The same thing is true of Langshan, Houdan, 
and Minorca poultry, and of the extra large carcasses of Brahmas and 
Cochins. In every line of poultry production it is a frequent occurrence that 
a man handling a small quantity of a certain kind of goods finds the trade 
satisfactory, which on increasing his stock he fir_ds that he has passed the 
limit of the demand for his produce, and the surplus moves slowly in the open 
market. This phase of the subject is of most importance to those who, 
having been successful on a small scale, are about to give their whole time to 
poultry. If the stock they have been using is not adapted to the market to 
which their increased output must go, the stock should be changed. 



S4 PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

103. Breeds for a Breeder. — One whose object is to do, ultimately, a 
general poultry business, a principal feature of which shall be the sale of 
exhibition and breeding stock, wishes, of course, to acquire special knowledge 
of the breeds he is to handle, at the same time that he is gaining practical 
general knowledge of the care of fowls, the principles of breeding, and build- 
ing up his stock. Where there is already an established trade in high class 
stock it is easy to learn which varieties are readily salable, and it is well for 
the beginner, especially if his means are small, to select some of the varieties 
most popular in his vicinity. Under such conditions a man with enough 
knowledge of fowls to be able to keep them in health would, probably, find it 
best in the long run to begin with first class stock, and each year secure expert 
advice in selecting and mating his breeding pens — until the time comes when 
he can rely on his own judgment of the stock. All popular varieties are well 
adapted to this kind of poultry keeping; though because of diffei-ences in local 
popularity all are not equally suited to all localities. A very correct idea of 
the relative popularity of the varieties in any section may be had from the 
advertisements of breeders in that section, from the classes in the poultry 
shows, and from the statements of those familiar with the business. 

Another point to consider in this connection is the basis of the popularity of 
a variety. Permanent poptdarity is always based on economic merit. If a 
popular variety fails there, avoid it. Its popularity is sure to be transient. In 
localities where thoroughbred fowls are not common, buyers are more eager 
to have stock of a kind different from that of their neighbors than to have 
better stock of the same kind. The spirit of rivalry and competition, which is 
the basis of high prices for thoroughbred stock, is not developed until people 
begin to be able to compare Standard merits. Under such circumstances the 
wisest plan is to begin with fairly good birds, — a good assortment of the 
varieties most universally popular, — and to sell this class of stock until it 
begins to appear what varieties are destined to attain local popularity ; then 
the breeder should make a special study of those varieties, secure some first 
class stock, and prepare to meet the demand. 

104. Non=Popular Fowls to be Avoided. — Beginners generally should 
avoid the non-popular varieties. For nearly all these fowls there is a limited 
demand, filled for the most part by a few breeders of long established reputa- 
tion. A profitable trade in such varieties is very hard to build up. New 
breeders also need to guard against being influenced by occasional demands 
for varieties they do not keep. It has happened that two or three inquiries 
coming at about the same time have led new breeders to put in stocks of birds 
for which there was no sale. Most of the (apparent) demand for non-popular 
varieties is what maybe called a " fictitious demand," coming principally from 
persons who have no intention of buying. 

105. What Most Breeders Can Do. — Extra fine exhibition stock always 
brings "big" prices, especially in the popular varieties difficult to breed to 



POULTR T- CRAFT. 85 

Standard requirements. These prices have no relation to, are not at all 
dependent upon, the practical qualities of the fowls. To build up a large and 
permanent trade in stock of lower Standard merit, it is necessary that the stock 
should be useful as well as beautiful. There is a large class of buyers who 
select for superficial excellence,^^, but are not long satisfied with such lack 
of useful qualities as is sometimes found in high class stock. This class of 
buyers is smaller than the next to be mentioned, but its members are willing 
to pay much better prices for what they buy, and their patronage is, volume 
for volume, more profitable. The largest demand is. for fowls bred especially 
for practical purposes, yet not noticeably deficient in Standard shape and color 
requirements. Most of the buyers of such fowls cannot and will not pay 
"fancy" prices. It is this last demand that most poultrymen are capable of 
filling. The production of the finest Standard fowls requires a combination 
of artistic perception and knowledge of the laws of breeding comparatively 
rare. The production of fowls whose chief merits are measured by the dozen 
and the pound, does not require extraordinary artistic faculty. The mediocre 
talent which most of those who find fowls interesting possess, fits them to 
supply first the demand for good practical stock, afterwards the demand for 
fair exhibition stock of good practical worth, — and this last demand will bring 
them the cream of their profit. 

106. Selecting a Breed for the Farm. — A farmer — or farmeress — 
keeping fowls under the conditions found on the ordinary farm, wants fowls 
that will rustle, will go out into the fields and meadows and pick a part of 
their living. He wants a breed that is not in any way an oddity. To him 
large crests, and heavily feathered legs, and monstrous combs are objectionable, 
because he does not see that they serve any useful purpose. He feels that such 
superfluities are out of place on the farm. As on most farms chickens are 
hatched and reared in the natural way, the farmer's hens must, usually, be 
sitters. It is generally of some importance, too, that the surplus poultry be of 
good market quality. So that of pure bred fowls, the varieties of Plymouth 
Rocks, and Wyandottes, and after them, White Wonders, and Rhode Island 
Reds, are the most suitable for general farm flocks. 

On farms where poultry, without being a leading feature, is still a specialty, 
the nature of that specialty may lead to the selection of a variety not in the 
general purpose class. Asiatics are prime favorites on farms which make 
something of a specialty of large roasters. Many farmers whose poultry 
furnishes the greater part of their fresh meat in summer, prefer Asiatics, 
because no other fowl is large enough to " make a meal." On some farms 
Leghorns are preferred, because eggs are secured from them with less trouble 
than from any other breed, they continuing to lay well for three or four years, 
while heavier fowls, kept under the same conditions, would become overfat 
and unproductive after their first annual moult. Just because the Leghorns 
lay well for several years, it may be possible to keep a stock of several hundred 
lavers on a farm, where if nearly the whole stock had to be renewed yearly, 



S6 POULTRY- CRAFT. 

not half that number could be kept. To many farmers the kind of poultry 
their stock makes is of little consequence, provided the hens lay plenty of 
eggs. For in many places where eggs are as good as cash at the grocery, 
marketing poultry profitably is, for a farmer who comes to town but once a 
week, and then has only a few hours in which to do a score of errands, a 
mighty troublesome problem. 

107. Fowls for the Village.- — When fowls ai-e kept on large village 
lots, farm conditions are reproduced on a small scale, and the considerations 
affecting the choice of a breed are nearly the same. Fowls that roam widely 
are more objectionable in these relatively narrow quarters than on a large 
farm, for here they are continually trespassing. A right minded poultryman 
will not permit his fowls to annoy his neighbors. When it is desired to give 
the fowls liberty as long as they remain " at home," the Asiatic and American 
varieties are preferable ; an ordinary fence will keep them within bounds. If 
the fowls while confined can be given ample yard room, the additional cost of 
higher fences for the high flyers is not so great as to overbalance a possible 
preference of the poultryman for one of the smaller breeds. 

108. Breeds for Close Quarters. — For a City Lot. — Nearly all 
varieties do well in confinement if well cared for. Because of their contented 
dispositions Asiatic are best adapted to close confinement. Nervous, restless 
fowls are more apt to acquire such vices as feather pulling and egg eating, and 
to cause trouble by frequently breaking bounds. Minorcas and Houdans will 
generally take more kindly to narrow yards than will Leghorns. Though 
contentment in confinement is to some degree a matter of training and habit, 
chicks that are reared in confinement are not fretted by it as are those which 
have had free range. 

Black and dark fowls are best suited to city lots, where there is much smoke 
and soot. 

109. Breeds for Fanciers. — The choice of a breed, or breeds, for a 
fancier must depend much on the nature of the pleasure sought. If it is the 
pleasure of possession of a uniform flock of hatidsome fowls, the novice-fancier 
should choose a well established variety easy to breed. He does not want to 
be obliged to rear a large flock in order to get a few that he will not be 
ashamed to show. The difficulties in breeding which made a variety objec- 
tionable to that one would make it suitable for another, who sought pleasure 
in the development of skill in producing rare specimens. A fancier who 
wants oddities can make choice of a variety much more easily than he can 
learn where to buy stock — so rarely are the oddities met in poultry yards. 
One who wishes a collection of a small number of each variety of a breed finds 
the breeds most numerously sub-divided just what he wants. Many find 
pleasure, and some profit, in the production and development of new breeds 
and varieties, or the development of new types of old varieties. This pleasure 



POULTRT-CRAFT. S7 

of the fancier is only completely rounded out when he sees his creations 
becoming popular. For this it is necessary that he should not work at random, 
but with definite ends in view, and a full realization of the style and quality of 
fowl likely to please and gain favor. The maker of new breeds needs to be 
very familiar with the old ones, and also to have a comprehensive view of the 
conditions and tendencies of the poultry world. 

110. Buying Stock. — Some General Observations. — It is presumed 
that one who has studied the subject thus far knows what kind of stock he 
needs. That is the kind of stock he should buy. If he wants to produce first 
rate stock of any kind he cannot do it from second rate (or worse) stock. It 
is folly in most cases to grade up inferior stock. It is to refuse to accept in 
full the results of the work of the best breeders. Most of those who do this 
make the plea that they cannot -afford to buy better stock. Whatever the 
object a poultryman has in view, he cannot afford to buy stock other than 
the best suited to that object* 

The trouble with most new breeders is, they are too eager to begin selling 
stock before they have produced it. They are not satisfied to begin with just 
enough breeding birds of best quality to hatch their own chicks. They must 
sell eggs for hatching from the start. 

Suppose a man has ten passably good pullets of a popular variety — worth 
one dollar each. He wants to grade up his stock with the ultimate object of 
producing first class breeding and exhibition birds. He pays ten dollars for a 
male to mate with these ten females, expecting to get a number of chickens 
worth five to ten dollars each, few worth less than two dollars. He may raise 
three to four hundred chicks in a single season from that pen, and the prob- 
ability is that after a season of hard work he will have not a single chick worth 
five dollars, very few worth as much as two dollars, and the most no better 
than the parent hens. If he has sold eggs from such a mating, he has done 
his prospective business more harm than good. 

Now if, instead, he had sold the ten pullets for ten dollars, and invested 
that amount in two hens of good quality, and bred on the right lines to mate 
with the male, he could, with " good luck," raise sixty to eighty chicks, more 
than half of which would be better than the best from the other mating. Just 
so in breeding for eggs, or meat, or any other feature. The beginner should 
always start with stock best for his purpose, — whatever that may be. 

Except for those who wish to breed exhibition stock of finest quality, it is 
not necessary to pay long prices. Nor are the prices asked for the stock of 
fair to medium quality usually purchased by amateurs, market poultrymen, 
and farmers, as exorbitant as a novice is inclined to think them. The usual 
prices for such stock are low, rather than high, as one finds when he begins to 
sell stock. f 

* Note. — This does not except the case of one beginning as described in IT 103. He 
buys mediocre stock to supply the first demand, and, later, higher class stock to prepare 
for the future demand. 

I'Note. — A novice is misled as to the profits on good breeding stock, because he does 



SS PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

Where competition is as active as among poultry breeders, the inexperienced 
buyer need not fear lest he pay too much for good stock ; though it must be 
said that he sometimes pays a good price for poor stuff. : — (Another condition 
not peculiar to the poultry business) . One soon learns where to buy the stock 
he wants. Taken all in all, beginners lose more through their own blunders, 
many of them inexcusable, in selecting and ordering stock, than through the 
deceit and cupidity of dishonest breeders. All reputable breeders ship stock 
on approval. If not found as represented, it may be returned, and the money 
refunded, less express charges. Sometimes a breeder sending stock a short 
distance agrees to pay the return express in case the stock is not as repre- 
sented. In general, the buyer pays express both ways : an arrangement not 
unfair to the buyer who risks only the amount of transportation, while the 
seller risks the full value of the fowls. The safest course for a beginner is to 
buy of well known breeders. He may pay a little more for the stock, but the 
reputation of the breeder affords a measure of protection to the buyer not 
versed in the points and qualities of different stocks. A breeder who has 
made a reputation does not knowingly risk it by misrepresenting his stock, or 
in any way defrauding his customers. It often happens that amateurs offer 
equally good stock at lower prices than the established breeder. One who is 
himself a judge of the stock may well take advantage of such opportunities. 
A novice runs more risk. Often when the amateur sells good stock cheap 
it is because he does not know its value, in which case it becomes simply a 
matter of chance whether the buyer gets what he pays for, or something 
better, or worse. In buying from a breeder of good repute, a beginner will 
be safer to take the breeder's word for the quality and value of the stock, thar 
his own judgment or the expression of opinion of those no better informed 
than himself. (Especially is this true in buying breeds in which special 
matings are required to bring out the colors in perfection). A novice often 
gets the mistaken idea that a certain feature is a sort of breed birth mark, or 
trade mark, — none genuine without it. The experienced breeder's judgment 
of a fowl strikes the proper balance of defects and excellencies. He knows 
what is back of. the birds he sells, and what kind of progeny they are likely to 
produce. 

A common error of beginners is to buy males and females of different 
breeders, in order to be sure of unrelated stock ; this almost uniformly gives 
poor results. (The reasons for this will be presented in the chapter on 

not know how large a portion of the stock is worth only market prices, and has no idea 
what it costs the breeder to advertise and sell stock. When one comes to sell his own 
stock he finds that prices are adjusted by the inexorable laws of supply and demand, and 
that a breeder must be able to raise a good percentage of stock of fair quality, and sell it 
seasonably at prices well up to the average, if his year's account is to show a balance 
on the right side of the ledger. It is worth noting here that the customary method of 
figuring profits on poultry includes in the cost only labor which has been paid for in 
cash. In most instances the statement of profit really includes the poultryman's time, 
and is not all clear profit. 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 89 

breeding, therefore need not be introduced here). The best way is. to buy 
both sexes of the same breeder, he mating the stock for the results desired by 
his customer.* 

Another thing the inexperienced buyer needs to consider is, that if the 
produce of the stock does not come up to expectations ; this may be due to 
the effect of a change of climate and treatment on the parent stock, or due 
to lack of skill in caring for young stock ; that it is more likely to be due to 
the latter cause than to the other, and ten times more likely to be the fault of 
the buyer than due to any cause chargeable to the seller. Such statements are 
neither soothing nor flattering to those who, having failed to realize expecta- 
tions in their first attempts to rear good stock, are disposed to blame every- 
thing but their own incapacity. They are true, none the less, as many will 
find if they will give the same stock another trial — more favorable because 
of their increasing experience. A good workman can do creditable work 
with poor tools and poor material ; a poor workman bungles with good tools, 
and botches a job, no matter how good the material, — generally the better the 
material the worse it is botched. When it is clear that the fault *s in the stock 
or in the mating, it is surely no more than fair to the seller of the stock to 
inform him of results, asking his advice and assistance in remedying matters. 
He will, doubtless, be found willing to do all that could reasonably be 
expected of any business man in a similar case, if the matter is stated fairly 
and cotirteously. A breeder is concerned for his customers' success. He 
will do everything in reason to assure it. It is his reputation — his bread and 
butter. 

There are rare cases where buyers are deliberately swindled. To seek 
redress at law, is generally to throw good money after bad. The best thing 
to do is to file a complaint, stating the facts in the case, with the paper or 
papers in which the party advertised. Such complaints are carefully investi- 
gated, and though it is hard to obtain conclusive proof of fraud, no reputable 
paper will carry the advertisement of one against whom complaints are 
numerous and apparently well grounded. 

111. When to Buy. — In the fall is the best time to buy stock. Good 
stock can be bought for less money then than at any other season. The early 
buyer gets the best selection. It is better too, for the fowls to be moved to 
their new quarters before the hens begin laying. It is a mistake to put off 
the purchase of breeding stock until just prior to the breeding season. One 

* Note. — When an amateur, or even one who thinks he has passed that stage, buys 
stock of a better breeder than himself, who, knowing all about the stock, has mated it for 
best results, the buyer consults his own best interests by breeding the stock just as mated 
for him. Persons who have spoiled enough good stock to know better, will buy a pair, a 
trio, or a pen of fowls, which are sent them properly mated. A foolish prejudice — (it 
is mere prejudice) — against inbreeding leads them to mismate the birds, and virtually 
throw away what they paid for when buying them. 



go POUL TR T- CRA FT. 

who does this pays more for his stock, and, in addition, runs the risk of 
losing the earlier and better part of the season — laying and hatching results 
alike being likely to be poor while the fowls are becoming accustomed to new 
conditions. After the first of June, each year, there are numerous oppor- 
tunities to buy at very low prices some of the stock breeders have used in 
their breeding pens. These are bargains for those prepared to give the stock 
proper care — not for others. 

112. Buying Old Stock. — There is very little difference in point of 
profitableness in buying young (breeding) stock, and buying stock in the 
second year. The older stock costs a little less, can be used, generally, only 
one season, but, is likely to throw better stock than younger fowls of the same 
quality. Fowls past two years old may be worth something as breeders to 
one to whom they no longer owe anything. For others they are risky invest- 
ments. It is only in exceptional cases that a fowl past two years old is worth 
buying for breeding at any price. For laying stock, young hens ought always 
to be preferred, because of their longer period of usefulness. 

113. Prices of Stock. — Prices of exhibition stock are always a matter 
of special correspondence between breeders and buyers. Fowls fit to win in 
the average show cost from $10 or $15 apiece, to double and treble those 
figures. What is called " number one breeding stock," a grade of stock fit to 
produce fair Standard fowls, itself of a quality to rank well in the minor 
shows, can be bought at $5 to $15 each for males ; $3 to $10 each for females. 
Fairly good breeding stock, satisfactory to all who do not value or cannot 
appreciate the fine points of a breed, can be had for $2 to $5 for males, and 
$1 to $3 for females. The prices of good thoroughbred stock bred for utility, 
run about the same, though extra good birds sometimes bring more. Those 
who cannot give fowls the care necessary to keep them up to the standard to 
which they have been bred, will find it better to buy such fowls as can be had 
at $10 to $15 a dozen, and to frequently renew their whole stock.* 

1 14. Buying Eggs. — " Is it better to begin with eggs, or with stock? " is 
the query of every beginner. People have all sorts of results, — good, bad, 
and indifferent — from purchases both of eggs and stock. It may be said, 
however, that in buying stock both the risks of total loss and the chances of 

*Note. — This does not mean that a farmer who wants to keep two hundred hens 
should buy them at those prices ; but that he might find it on the whole more profitable 
to buy a breeding yard of good culls every other year from which to produce his laying 
and market stock, than to introduce new males to the old stock each year. People who 
keep a few hens, only for the eggs, would find the cheap grade of stock as good as any 
other; provided, always, it has been bred for eggs — cheaper at those prices than they 
could produce it for themselves, and cheaper, in the end, than the most of the stock 
offered at one-half to one-third the price. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



9 r 



getting fine stock very cheap, are less than in buying eggs. Buying matured 
stock is buying something tangible and real ; buying eggs is buying chicks 
before they are hatched, — the eggs contain possibilities; the stock is a 
reality. Prices of eggs run from $i to $5 — rarely higher, though $10 or 
$15 per sitting is sometimes charged. The common prices are $3 to $5 for 
eggs from high class exhibition stock; $1.50 to $3 for medium exhibition 
and good pi'actical stock. Incubator eggs are sold by t.ie hundred, at 
from $4 to $10, or $12. At the former price they are generally from culls, 
and used mostly for hatching broilers. At the higher prices, eggs can be had 
from fairly good breeding stock. Packed in baskets or crates, eggs go every- 
where by express. Long distance shipments seem to give good results quite-, 
as often as short ones. 




92 PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 



CHAPTER VII. 



Foods and Feeding. 

1 15. Corn — is, of all grains used as poultry food, the cheapest and most 
generally available. It is probable that American fowls are fed more corn 
and corn products than of all other grain products combined. This is cer- 
tainly true of the farm flocks and small flocks. In the area which produces 
a large surplus of poultry, corn is the almost exclusive grain food. In the 
practice of the best special poultry farmers it is not so much used, but still 
is fed more generously than the balance of published opinion against its use 
would indicate. It contains carbonaceous matter in excess of the require- 
ments of all fowls in warm weather, of fowls in confinement with moderate 
exercise, and of fowls warmly housed in winter. Under the opposites of 
these conditions corn and corn products may be the principal part of the 
grain diet : provided, always, that the fowls have all the vegetable and 
animal food they need, and care is taken to prevent the over-eating of corn 
in warm weather. There is danger in feeding corn heavily. There is 
danger in heavy feeding of any grain palatable to fowls. With whole 
corn the danger is greatest, because the fowls get, with so little exercise, so 
much food of a kind which gives under ordinary conditions some surplus of 
heat — energy which, if not used in searching for more food, is stored up as 
fat : finally to the detriment of the fowl. 

The greatest abuse of corn is in the failure of those who use it freely with 
good results in cold weather to reduce a little the amount of corn in the 
ration for hot weather. Knowledge of the widespread disorders growing out 
of this neglect, has led some authorities on feeding to place so much stress on 
the risks of feeding corn that many are afraid of it, and use so sparingly that 
they reduce their profits as much by over-caution as the others do by careless- 
ness. From one extreme to the other is a "far cry." It is as easy to learn 
to feed corn right as to learn to feed right. Considering that corn always 
must be a staple article of poultry food, it is as necessary for nine out of ten 
American poultry keepers to learn to feed corn right as it is that they should 
make poultry profitable. 

The forms in which corn foods are on sale are : 

Whole Corn — (generally shelled, but in some places also on -the cob). 
May be fed freely as an evening meal to growing stock large enough to eat 
it ; to fowls in cold quarters or on range ; may be- a part of the evening food 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 93 

of fowls in confinement (comfortable quarters, with exercise) ; may be given 
as a light morning feed to fowls on a good range. For sitting hens and 
for ordinary fattening, it may be an exclusive food. 

Cracked Corn — if fed in litter, can be used much more freely and 
generally than whole corn, though corn that has been long cracked contains 
proportionately more carbon than whole corn.* Unless it is sifted before 
using there is some waste of the finer particles, which should be sifted out 
and thrown in with the meal. Fed with moderate exercise compulsory, 
cracked corn is under some conditions as good an egg producer as wheat — 
and much cheaper. When an abundance of carbon is needed, it is a better 
food than either wheat or barley. It may be the only food fed to growing 
chicks on a range where insects and green food are abundant. Such a diet 
is not the best, but will do when more varied diet cannot be obtained, or 
would be unprofitable. 

Corn Meal — (coarse, unbolted), forms generally one-fourth to one-half 
of the millstuffs used in a mash. For young chicks it is often used in much 
more generous proportion. Under similar circumstances it may be given 
moistened, uncooked, or scalded, half-cooked, as freely as cracked corn. As 
well baked johnnycake, it is often made the principal part of a ration for 
chicks however situated. 

Corn Chop — is finer than cracked corn, coarser than corn meal, and may 
be used in place of either. 

Corn and Cob Meal — contains more indigestible matter than the other 
straight corn products, but still has digestible elements in nearly the same 
proportions. Cooked with clover or alfalfa, it makes an excellent mash for 
cold weather. 

Mixtures. — The most common commercial mixtures, composed largely 
of corn, are Mixed C/iop, corn and oats equal parts, ground; and " Prov- 
ender ," a mixture of corn, oats and bran. 

116. Wheat. — Wheat Screenings, Damaged Wheat. Wheat is 
rated the best single grain for poultry. Principally in connection with the 
use of wheat has arisen a question of the relative values of sound and 
damaged grains as poultry food. Wheat being a staple of human food, 
the price of good wheat usually rules high as compared with other grains — 
especially corn, the only other grain of which fowls are fond as of wheat. 
Wheat of fair quality, broken (good) wheat, and good wheat screenings, are 
as good poultry food as the very finest milling wheats. No ordinary test will 
find them inferior. Poor wheat and dirty screenings can be fed to advantage 
only when bought very cheap. Wheat damaged by fire or water can also be 
fed to advantage, if not so much damaged that well conditioned fowls refuse 
it, and if the price is right. In buying such goods, it is a safe rule to buy 

* Note. — Many poultrymen crack corn as needed, thus getting its full food value. 



•94 POULTR T- CRA FT. 

only when there can be no doubt of the advantage of using the lot in question. 
In wheat the food elements are combined in very nearly the proportions 
required by the system of the fowl. Under conditions of moderate temper- 
ature and exercise, it may be made almost an exclusive diet for a long 
time without perceptible harm to the fowls.* 

In cold weather and cold quarters wheat alone fails to keep up the heat of 
the body. Fed freely without exercise, in warm and moderate weather, it 
fattens quite rapidly. It is good food for chicks at any age, and should form 
one-fifth to one-third of their diet whenever purchasable at a price that allows 
of feeding it with profit. t 

Wheat Brax — is used in nearly all mashes, the proportion of bran to 
other ingredients varying with the composition of the bran. Weight is a 
fairly reliable index of quality. Light bran is bra?t — nothing else. Heavy 
bran contains more or less middlings. Bran alone is rarely fed to fowls, 
though some poultry keepers give their fowls free access to a dish of bran, 
wet or dry, and think it an advantage to supplement the regular meals of 
heavy laying hens in this way. The price of wheat bran seldom goes so high 
that there is anything to gain by using substitutes. 

Middlings and Shorts are names for practically the same substance, the 
mill product between flour and bran. Quality varies as in bran. Both these 
by-products depend for quality on the processes used in the mills from which 
they come. Being rich in glutinous matter, middlings are most valuable to 
use with corn meal, and in the mashes of all rations containing much corn. 
A mash made largely of middlings is doughy, sticky, and not relished by 
fowls. One-fourth to one-third is the proportion of middlings commonly 
used. 

117. Oats. — Whole Oats — contain nutritious matter in nearly the 
same proportions as wheat, but because of their coarse indigestible husk are 
not as well liked by fowls. The husk constitutes about one-tenth of the bulk 
in good oats, and in poor oats much more. It is commonly thought that 
heavy weight oats are the best. Analyses have shown that the contrary is 
true. % 

When buying oats the quality may be tested accurately enough by hulling 
a few sample grains. An ordinary inspection does not detect poor quality in 

* Note. — The experiment was made with laying hens, (Brown Leghorns), and a sixty 
per cent egg yield secured in a month from hens fed whole wheat three times daily in 
close confinement, with very little exercise. 

t Note. — Just how much more a poultryman can afford to pay for wheat than for corn, 
is an open question. Experiments with cattle indicate that the feeding value of wheat is 
not enough greater to justify the usual difference in prices of corn and the various grades 
of wheat on sale for poultry food. The results of these experiments give wheat a cash 
feeding value one-tenth to one-fourth above that of corn. 

t U. S. Government Bulletin. 



POULTR T- CRA FT. 95 

oats as readily as in wheat. It is important for the feeder to know the quality 
of the oats he is using. It is not an unusual thing for those who are careless 
about this to feed bushel after bushel of worthless oats — nothing but husks 
— and seeing them left by the fowls, conclude that the fowls are over-fed ; 
then other feeds are reduced, and the fowls, possibly, half-starved before the 
error is detected. A very few poultry keepers have reported good results 
from a diet mainly of whole oats. By most they are fed as a light (noon) 
feed, or in a mixture of grains. Good oats are perhaps the best whole grain 
to balance a heavy corn ration. If steamed occasionally they can be fed 
oftener, for fowls eat them more readily; but when a mash is fed regularly, 
cooked grains should not often be given in addition. The feeder can save 
work and add variety by occasionally substituting steamed oats for the 
regular mash. 

Hulled Oats — make a very good cheaper substitute for oat meal for those 
who like a good proportion of oat meal in a ration for chicks. They may also 
be used in mixtures of grain for old fowls. 

Ground Oats — (coarse, unsifted), are used in mashes and in cakes for 
chicks. When fed to very voung chicks it is better to sift out the hulls. 

Oat Meal and Rolled Oats — though sometimes highly recommended 
for young chicks, are little used by poultry men. A few use one or other of 
them freely for the first week or ten days ; and a very few continue their use 
occasionally after that period. They are costly foods. When fed freely oat 
meal often causes bowel disorders. The feeder who is after the most profit will 
hardly think of paying high prices for articles specially prepared for human 
food, when as good results can be (and are) obtained by the use of cheaper 
articles, and of oats in cheaper forms. 

118. Barley — is not as generally kept in stock for poultry food as the 
grains previously mentioned, and is sometimes hard to get where the demand 
for "chicken feed" is light. Fowls do not like it as well as wheat. Its 
feeding value, as determined in practical use, and also by analysis, is nearly 
equal to that of wheat. It contains a little more fiber, and is therefore less 
palatable. The hull seems to be the objectionable feature — to the fowls — 
for hulled barley they eat freely. Barley contains a little more bone and 
muscle forming food than wheat, and is usually enough lower in price to be 
a much cheaper food. 

Barley Screenings — have a larger proportion of nutriment than well 
developed grains have. 

Barley Meat. — has about the same properties as wheat middlings. 

119. Rye. — The general condemnation of rye as a poultry food seems to 
be based on very limited experiences in feeding it. In some parts of Europe 
it is the " staff of life," just as wheat is here and in England, and is used much 



96 PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 

for domestic animals as well as for men. Here and there in this country is 
found a feeder who uses rye with good results. Its rank, as determined by 
chemical analysis, is between barley and corn. It is less fibrous than barley — 
a little more fattening. Rye is so cheap when obtainable that it is surely 
worth while for those who could use it if satisfactory to give it a thorough 
test. 

Rye Bran — is nearly identical in composition with wheat bran. A 
mixture of equal parts of rye, corn and oats, has the same feeding value as 
buckwheat. 

120. Buckwheat — is very generally fed as a part of the whole grain 
ration, wherever it can be bought at a price that admits of its use as poultry 
food. In sections where little of it is grown it is rarely on sale except at seed 
stores, and at a rather high price. It is more fattening than wheat or barley, 
nearly as fibrous as oats ; not a good grain to feed heavily. 

Buckwheat Middlings are, of all mill stuffs from grains,* the richest in 
albuminous matter, therefore most valuable for balancing rations deficient in 
protein. 

121. Sorghum Seed — available in sorghum growing districts, contains 
a little more heating, fattening matter than corn. Those who have used it say 
it is a good poultry food — good for egg production for hens on the farm. 

1 22. Chicken Corn — (sorghum vtdgare) — has about the same nutritive 
value as wheat, as much husk and fiber as whole oats. 

Kaffir Corn, Millo Maize, Durra, Egyptian Corn — resemble chicken 
corn in food properties. The names of these grains are, in popular usage, 
rather indiscriminately applied. All make good poultry foods. They are 
particularly valuable for poultry keepers in dry regions who grow their own 
grains. 

123. Broom Corn Seed, — hulled, makes a good food. (Tested in com- 
parison with wheat, it gave equally good results). When not hulled fowls do 
not eat it freely enough to make it useful as a staple of diet. 

124. Millet Seed — has relatively more flesh forming substance than any 
of the larger grains — more, even, than oat meal. It is often recommended 
for young chicks, but has too much fiber, and is too apt to cause bowel troubles, 
to be used as freely as is generally suggested. The best way to feed it to 
chicks is to scatter it where well fed chicks can get it, if they hunt or scratch 
for it, in addition to their regular meals. To old fowls it is generally given 
as a light meal, in litter, to compel exercise. The grains are so small that 
fowls cannot eat dry millet fast enough to make a good meal of it. When it is 

* Note. — Buck-wheat is ?iot a grain, though always classed among grain foods. 



P O UL TR T- CRA FT. 97 

cheap — (as it is in some places), — a good way to feed is to cook it and feed 
in troughs instead of mash. It should not be fed regularly in this way. There 
are numerous varieties. Those having the largest grains give best satisfaction 
as chicken feed. 

125. Linseed Meal and Cotton Seed Meal — are very rich in albumen, 
and may be fed in small proportions in mashes, though those who can get corn, 
wheat, and oat products in abundance have little need of either of these. 

126. Other By=Products and Waste Products from Grain. — There 
are many of these — most of them available only in the vicinities of the factories 
from which they come, though some, extensively used in cattle feeding, are 
kept in stock by large feed dealers generally. Few have been practically 
tested as poultry foods. Trials of such food stuffs ought to be based on 
knowledge of their composition, and of the general laws of feeding, as given 
in the next chapter. Haphazard tests of food accomplish little. 

127. Waste Bread. — Near large cities waste bread is an important item 
in the poultry food supply. Much of it is not broken at all — simply stale 
bread. A mixed lot of broken bread gives a very complete ration, for it con- 
tains a great variety, white, brown, graham, and corn breads, broken cakes, 
muffins, etc. It is fed in various ways : dry, crumbled ; moist, crumbled ; 
simply moistened with milk or water : soaked to a pulp in warm water, then 
thickened with meal and bran, or middlings. Some poultrymen use no other 
soft food. It is very cheap. Fed with whole corn to fowls on good range, it 
makes a most economical and satisfactory ration. 

Cracker Crumbs, : — stale and broken crackers, are also used as food for 
chicks. 

128. Meat Foods. — Beef Scraps, Dried Blood, Animal Meal, 
Pork Scraps, Lard Cracklings — are all used as poultry foods. An excess 
of animal food in a ration causes digestive troubles : it is not, therefore, 
advisable to feed the whole meat ration in the mash. If a part of it is fed 
separately, fowls are not likely to over-eat of it. Fowls over-fed with meat will 
at last refuse a mash containing it ; but the mischief is done before the fowls 
are forced to refuse the food. 

Green Bone — and many of the prepared meat foods contain much mineral 
matter — needed for bone and for shells. 

Raw Lean Beef — is a good animal food when it can be had for little or 
nothing. As by far the greater part of its bulk is water, the feeder cannot 
afford to pay much for it, with prepared foods as cheap as they are. 

Horse Meat. — The meat of a healthy horse killed for cause, can be used 
as poultry food; but ordinary " horse meat" is unfit for fowls. 



98 PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

Fish Scraps and Desiccated Fish — are, near the sea coast, staple 
articles of animal food for poultry. Fish products impart a rather strong odor 
to eggs and flesh, and are often on that account objectionable. 

Clams — are frequently fed to fowls; either raw, pounded up — shell and 
all — or cooked in the mash. 

129. Eggs. — Infertile and very stale eggs are commonly used as poultry 
food (and are sometimes too abundant either for the credit of the poultry 
keeper or the good of the chicks, to which they are oftenest fed). The usual 
method is to hard boil them, chop fine and feed, either alone or with bread or 
cracker crumbs, to little chicks. A better way is to break them — shell and 
all, into the mash or the batter for the johnnycake ; or soft boil, break and 
thicken with meal. 

130. Vegetable Foods. — Nearly all common vegetables are eagerly 
eaten by fowls. Green vegetables and roots contain little nutriment as 
compared with grain — from 78 to 96 per cent of their bulk being water. 
With the exception of potatoes, they are hardly more than relishes in winter, 
but in summer are an important part of the ration. 

Potatoes (White) and Sweet Potatoes — which contain the most dry 
matter, are very carbonaceous, hence should be fed sparingly — better not at 
all to fowls which get much corn. 

Onions — have a tonic and medicinal value. Fed raw, they impart their 
taste to the flesh and eggs of fowls. When cooked they can be fed more 
freely* without affecting the flavor of eggs or meat. The best way to feed 
onions is to slice them in a slaw cutter, and boil with the hay or vegetables for 
the mash ; cut up fine in this way they are quickly and thoroughly cooked. 

The pi'ofitableness of feeding vegetables depends much on their cost. To 
buy them at the prices they usually bring for human food, does not pay, for 
as good results can be had by using green grass in summer, and clover or 
alfalfa hay in winter. Vegetables that can be grown cheaply, as cabbages, 
mangels, etc., and waste vegetables of all kinds, can generally be bought at 
prices so low as to admit of feeding enough of them to give the ration variety; 
but, if they cannot, fowls which have plenty of good hay will not suffer for 
lack of them. 

131. Hay. — The Red and White Clovers, and Alfalfa, — not over- 
ripe, well cured, make the cheapest green foods for winter feeding. Finely 
cut hay can be fed as a separate feed, either dry or steamed ; but it is better to 
feed it cooked in a mash. Where alfalfa is sold, baled, a common practice of 
poultrymen is to put a bale under a shed or in the scratching floor, the wh - es 

•' Note. — Five pounds of onions daily to every one hundred hens is feeding onions 
freely, — gives them all the onions they care to eat — and this amount of cooked onions 
can be fed without affecting the flavor of the products. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



99 



remaining fast, and allow the hens to help themselves at will. Finely cut 
clover in sacks is now on sale by leading supply houses. It is of little use to 
feed fowls woody stalks of hay, and if fine hay cannot be had otherwise it is 
worth while for a breeder who could use a considerably quantity of it, to pay 
a farmer to cut and cure for him a ton, or as much as he could use in a year, 
of clover or alfalfa in the right stage to make good poultry food. One who 
needed but a small quantity can often arrange to get a few bushels at a time 
of fine leaves from a neighbor's haymow ; or may cure lawn clippings for him- 
self, though that is for most people rather unsatisfactory, and if his time is 
worth anything, costs more than to buy vegetables. Hay is too bulky — con- 
tains too much fiber — to be used as a principal poultry food. In everyday 
use no difference is noted in feeding properties of the kinds named. Their 
rank as determined by analyses is: (i) white clover; (2) alfalfa; (3) red 
clover. Prepared clover finely cut for poultry food is kept in stock by large 
dealers in poultry supplies. 

132. Milk. — Sweet Skim Milk — is invaluable in poultry feeding. 
It can be given as a drink, or the mash can be wet with or cooked in milk. At 
the low price for which it can be bought at creameries, it is one of the most 
economical of foods. 

Sour Milk, Clabber Milk, and Butter Milk — are all fed. For mixing 
mashes they are not as satisfactory as sweet milk, yet many use and like them. 
Cold clabber milk thickened with bran, middlings or corn meal, makes a side 
dish much relished by fowls in hot weather. 

Curd — is a valuable food — more concentrated than milk ; giving the fowls 
the solids of the milk without the water. 

Cheese — that has passed the last stage of fitness for human food, is often 
given to fowls, and is highly recommended as an egg producer. 

Whey — is used by many feeders to wet the mash. It contains so little 
solid matter that the advantage of using it, rather than water, to wet the mash, 
must be more fancied than real — especially as its solids are principally 
carbonaceous. If one has it, it will pay to use it — nothing should be wasted. 
It has not food value enough, however, to make it worth one's while to go to 
any trouble or expense to get it. 

133. Egg Foods. — Condition Powders. — Tonics and Stimulants — 

of various kinds are in the debatable list between foods and medicines. Some 
use them for one, some for the other. The wisdom of using them depends on 
circumstances. It is certainly unwise for one whose fowls plainly need a 
tonic to neglect — on principle — to use one ; and it is as certainly unwise to 
feed stimulants to fowls in the best of condition, and at the height of profitable 
productiveness without them. Nearly all fowls are better for the regular 
addition of a condition powder to their mash during the moulting period, and 
at times when colds are epidemic; as they often are at the same time among 
men and domestic animals. 



ioo PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

134. Grit, Shell, Dry Bone, Charcoal — while, perhaps, not properly 
foods, are important accessories. 

Grit — is " hens' teeth," and is indispensable. A supply of grit of suitable 
size should be accessible to a fowl from the time it, a chick, leaves the nest or 
incubator. 

Charcoal — aids digestion, and purifies the blood. It is fed either pul- 
verized or finely cracked ; sometimes in the mash, but often in a pan or box — 
as grit and shell are given. Fowls should have frequent opportunities to 
use it. 

Dry Bone — is not so much used since bone cutters and the prepared 
animal foods containing bone have come into more general use. 

Oyster Shells — need not be furnished to chicks, but should be given to 
pullets as they show signs of laying, and should be always accessible to laying 
hens. 

135. Buying Supplies in Quantity. — Few poultrymen have enough 
working capital to buy and store supplies for long periods. Those who 
indulge regrets because they have not, spend grief unnecessarily. Buying 
stocks of perishable goods subject to wide fluctuations in price is very much of 
a speculation. One may buy grain enough to last him six months, only to see 
the price go down within a week, and stay down. Besides, there is always 
some shrinkage and loss in storing food. The ordinary action of the air 
rapidly takes nitrogen from ground foods. Whole grains are more easily 
kept, but a few rats or mice, or a little dampness, may cause loss much greater 
than the original saving made by purchasing the larger quantity. Purchases 
of supplies should be according to size of the business. It will not often be an 
advantage to buy grain for more than two or three months at a time. In many 
cases not more than one month's supplies can be managed with true economy. 
In buying imperishable goods, as grit, oyster, shells, etc., the prices of which 
fluctuate hardly ever, the case is different. A small poultryman had best buy 
supplies of these to last a year or two. In buying damaged stuff, especially 
meats and vegetables, it is well to keep on the safe side, buying only as much 
as will be eaten while still fit for use. 

136. Using Damaged Articles for Poultry Food. — Allusion has 
already been made to this matter, and also to the fact that fowls are gleaners 
and scavengers. The latter word may not sound nice — the fact is there, none 
the less. The treatment of this question, — the decision as to what to do and 
what not to do, requires, first of all, common sense. To go to the extreme 
limit of what fowls will endure in the way of decomposing and filthy food, 
is, from every point of view, a mistake. (Happily it is not a common one). 
To be over-nice, is to be altogether unreasonable. Food that has just passed 
the stage of fitness for human beings of somewhat refined tastes, is just as 
agreeable to fowls as if in perfect condition, and just as good for them. The 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 1 01 

greatest danger in using such foods is that they are so cheap when they can 
be had in quantity that the feeder is tempted to use too large a proportion of 
them, — especially of meats and vegetables, — keeping the fowls short on 
grain to compel them to eat the other stuffs. As far as the effect of slightly 
damaged food on the health of fowls and the flavors of meat and eggs is con- 
cerned, if the food is such that a well fed fowl eats it well, no bad effects can 
be discerned. As a simple matter of fact, the most common unpleasant flavors 
of eggs and flesh are clue to foods (as, say, onions), rightly considered par- 
ticularly healthy ; or (of eggs) to absorption of bad odors after being laid. 

137. A Balanced Ration — is a complete ration, containing in proper 
proportion and in sufficient quantity all necessary food. The food eaten by 
a fowl goes: — to growth, including reproduction, egg production ; —to 
-warmth; — to strength. Nitrogenous elements are built into the body, 
replacing worn, and adding new, substance. Carbonaceous elements are 
burned in the body, giving warmth and energy — capacity for muscular 
action. The needs of the fowl's system are not always the same. It does 
not always use the different elements in the same proportions. It has in itself 
limited power to balance its ration, making a surplus of either class of food 
elements compensate for a deficit of the other. In the foods and combinations 
of foods used by expert feeders, the food elements are about right for average 
normal conditions. Observation and experience soon teach a feeder how to 
vary his ration to meet changes in the weather and apparent changes in the 
condition of the fowls. The commonest fault in the ration of well fed 
fowls is an excess of heat and fat producing matter. For this the feeder 
has an ever present remedy in the power of compelling the fowls to expend 
it in exercise. 

138. The Need of a Variety of Foods. — A ration which is sufficient in 
quantity, and provides the variety of foods necessary to make it appetizing, 
will be on the whole a pretty well balanced ration. Such a ration for fowls 
in confinement would comprise two or more kinds of whole grain : a mash 
of vegetables — or hay — corn meal, wheat middlings, bran — or mill stuffs 
equivalent to these in feeding value — some kind of meat food, and a little 
green vegetables — a simple diet, yet varied enough to keep the digestive 
organs in good condition and the appetite normal. When fed grains of which 
they are fond, under conditions which invite gluttony, hens will over-eat, as 
they also will of a mash containing too much corn meal. If fed a little short 
on grain stuffs, fowls that get meat and vegetables regularly may be allowed 
to let their appetites regulate the quantities of them to be eaten. 

Elaborate compounds of foods are not needed in mashes. In general a 
mash will be as well balanced — as complete — as a ration can be, with three 
or four ingredients. Good feeding is systematic. Large bills of fare make a 
system too cumbersome. That the fowls may be trained to eat what is given 



io2 PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

them, the greatest possible variety should be introduced in feeding whole 
grain. (Not a great number of grains at the same time, but frequent changes 
made in the grains fed by way of variety). " Finickyness " in eating is a bad 
trait in a fowl. In different places the feeding problem deals with slightly 
different assortments of foods. Wherever located, one soon finds that the list 
of articles he can profitably use in large quantities is short. 

139. Changing Rations. — Once found, the ration which gives satis- 
factory results should be used as long as prices allow. If a change must be 
made in a staple article of a ration, it should — when possible — be made 
gradually. Radical changes in diet always have some bad effects, and if 
fowls have not been taught to eat what is set before them, it may be some 
days before they eat a new food as freely as they should. In the meantime 
their light feeding will have played the mischief with the egg yield. Fowls 
accustomed to eat a variety of grains will, of course, have their preferences, 
but will rarely exercise them to the length of going hungry if a favorite food 
is not forthcoming. Neither the refusal, at first, of the fowls to eat, nor the 
slight bowel troubles incident to a change, should prevent the use of a food it 
is clearly to the advantage of the poultryman to use, and which he knows 
others are using with good results. 

140. Feeding for Special Results. — Distinctions between " rations for 
eggs," "rations for growth," "maintenance rations," "fattening rations," are 
rather misleading. The differences are not so much in the proportions of the 
foods as in the methods of preparing them, the form in which the food is 
given, the number of daily feeds, the quantities fed, and — most important — 
the conditions imposed on the fowls. A ration which, fed five times a day 
gives good hardy growth to chicks at liberty, will force, or even fatten chicks 
in confinement, though for quick fattening it would be too narrow. The 
same (in composition) ration fed three times daily to hens with moderate 
exercise, would make a good laying ration ; fed to the same hens without 
exercise, it would be a fattening ration. Some feeders do use a variety of 
rations, but, except for forcing, their extra work is labor lost. 

141. Different Rations for Different Classes of Fowls. — Some 
experienced feeders can use the same ration for Leghorns, Plymouth Rocks, 
and Brahmas, and get uncommonly good results from all ; some find it 
necessary to use quite different rations — more so than to make differences for 
the same breed for special purposes. Those mentioned first are more skillful 
feeders, have better judgment as to how mtich to feed. Beginners who keep 
several varieties will find it better, at least at first, to use a rather bulky, 
nitrogenous ration for fowls prone to lay on fat ; a more carbonaceous ration 
for the active, enei-getic breeds. Many people — many good feeders — are 
a little too automatic in their work to handle several breeds, of different 
classes, at the same time with good results from all. 



POULTR T- CRA FT. 1 03 

142. Methods of Feeding. — In feeding method and regularity are all 
important. There must be system. To the fowls it will make little differ- 
ence which of the many good systems is used. To the feeder it may make 
much difference. One system will be more convenient for this man, another 
more convenient for that. The most common method — among those who 
have method — is to give a mash in the morning; vegetables, cut bone, or a 
light feed of grain at noon ; a full feed of grain in the evening. It is a good 
system, though the fact that equally good results attend the use of other 
systems,-^- among them one just the reverse of this, — disproves the very 
plausible theory which persuaded so many to adopt it. The theory was that 
the fowls, after their night's fast, needed a meal that would be quickly assimi- 
lated, and that at night they needed a meal of hard grain slow of digestion. 
Grain in the morning and mash at night, give just as good results. Results 
as good as the best have also been obtained from grain mornings and evenings, 
and mash at noon. It is by no means certain that as good results cannot be 
obtained without a mash as with one ; but general experience indicates that it 
is easier for most to get good results by using a mash feed once daily, than by 
omitting it. The great value of the mash lies in the opportunity it affords to 
more exactly regulate the ration. If the mash is not eaten eagerly, it is at 
once clear that the fowls are over-fed, or that the other food contains much 
too large a proportion of some substance prominent in the mash. To the 
trained feeder, the mash is a gauge of the condition of his flock. Whatever 
be the system adopted, it should be closely followed, and changed only for 
some very good reason. One of the common mistakes in amateur feeding is 
to make frequent radical changes of rations and of methods of feeding — a 
sure way to bring about digestive troubles, and ultimately destroy the useful- 
ness of such fowls as are not killed outright. 

143. Cooking Food. — Some feeders cook the mash, some 'scald (half- 
cook) it, some merely wet it. It is commonly supposed that cooked food is 
more digestible. As to that, there is no conclusive evidence. A significant 
pointer is that the leading duck raisers have changed from cooked to wet food 
for their ducklings. An objection to wet uncooked food is that it sours 
quickly. If given in the first stages of fermentation, it does no harm ; but 
too often the feeder, unwilling to throw it out, takes long chances on very 
sour or mouldy food. Cooked food remains sweet much longer, and is there- 
fore preferable when enough for several feeds is to be prepai-ed at one time. 
While good results are undoubtedly obtained with raw and partly cooked 
foods, general opinion and practice favor the thorough cooking of mashes for 
both fowls and chicks, and of the baked cakes many use for chicks. Whole 
grains should be cooked only occasionally, by way of variety. For this a 
fibrous grain, as oats, not palatable in its natural state, should be selected. 
Cooked grain is, to all intents and purposes, a " soft " food. Too much soft 
food in a ration impairs, through partial disuse, the digestive organs, which 



io4 PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

in the fowl are specially adapted to grinding dry, whole grain. When the 
digestion goes wrong everything begins to go wrong. Cooking is a part of 
the preparation of commercial meat foods. Fresh meat may be fed either 
cooked or raw ; when cooked, the water in v/hich it was cooked should be 
used in the mash. The notion that raw meat makes fowls vicious, is absurd. 

144. How Often to Feed. — Unless the foraging ground is uncommonly 
good, fowls at liberty should be fed twice daily. Fowls in confinement should 
be fed two or three times, according to the manner of feeding the whole 
grain. When grain is fed on bare ground or scantily littered floors, it is better 
to give the grain for the day in two feeds. When floors are heavily littered, 
once feeding grain may be enough. Occasional light feeds between meals 
are good, but to regularly give four or five meals daily to adult fowls is poor 
method. Chicks should be fed from six to three times daily, according to age 
and circumstances. The length of interval between meals can be gauged by 
the appetites of the chicks. 

145. How Much to Feed. — The common rule for a full feed of mash 
is : All they xvill eat clean and qitick. If mash is left before fowls, they 
will after having satisfied their appetites once, go away, and a little later 
come back and eat more. It is better to give only what they will take at one 
"feed." Of a properly compounded mash as much as they will eat at one 
time can safely be given. When grain is fed in heavy litter, a quart gives a 
full feed to a dozen average fowls. A quart of grain fed thus in the evening 
is not all eaten that day. One-fifth to one-fourth of it will remain in the 
litter to be scratched out next morning, early — if the feeding of the mash is 
delayed ; not till toward noon if a full feed of mash is given the first thing in 
the morning. Adult fowls, except when being fatted, should not be allowed 
to gorge themselves ; growing chicks may safely be allowed to eat all they 
will of a fairly balanced ration, — and it will do no harm to encourage them 
to eat more. 

146. Tested Rations. — Remark. — Most of the rations described here 
have been many times in print, though not in the exact words here given. 
The arrangement, and to some extent the wording, is changed in the endeavor 
to make all conform to a common pattern. Comparison of some of the 
similar rations will show that some good feeders use unnecessary ingredients. 
The great variety of rations given here makes it very improbable that' any 
inexperienced feeder will be unable to find at least one thoroughly tested 
ration suited to his circumstances. 

(1). Ration for Breeding Stock. — (Felch). — Summer— Morning, — mash of boiled 
vegetables, wheat bran and corn meal ; meat in some form added three days in the week. 
Mash fed hot, — as much as will be eaten before 9 o'clock. Afternoon, — at 4 or 5 o'clock 



POULTR T- CRA FT. 1 05 

a full feed of mixed small grains and a little corn. Winter — Wheat mash will be eaten 
up clean at the morning meal; at noon, small grains, sunflower seed, etc. ; at night, all 
the corn they will eat. 

(2). Ration for Laying Hens. — Leghorns. — (Wyckoff). — Morning — Mash 
compounded as follows: i bu. corn, 2 bu. oats, ground fine; to each 200 lbs. of this 
mixture add 100 lbs. bran and 5 or 6 lbs. beef scraps ; moisten with milk ; feed in troughs, 
returning after ten or fifteen minutes to take up any feed that may be left, and give a 
second feeding where needed. At noon, — green food, mangels or cabbage in winter, 
clover or kale in summer; sometimes a light feed of mixed grain in litter. Night feed, — 
mixed grain, in winter 2 bu. each wheat, oats, buckwheat, and corn ; in summer the corn 
in the mixture reduced one-half. 

(3). Ration for Twelve Fowls. — (Boyer). — Dump all kitchen scraps into an old 
pot, and cook each evening; salt w^hen cooking. In the morning heat up again. Scald 
1 pint bran, 1 pint equal parts ground oats and corn meal; mix with the scraps. Twice 
a week add a little condition powder or charcoal and sulphur. Feed 2 qts., (less rather 
than more) to twelve hens. At noon feed 1 pt. of wheat or oats in litter; at night, 1 qt. 
of wheat, oats, or (in winter) cracked corn in litter, feeding the grains in regular rotation. 

(4). Ration for Fowls Kept on the Colony Plan. — (Wilbour). — Morning feed, 
— cooked vegetables and mixed meals ; afternoon feed, — whole corn the year round. 

(5). Ration for Laying Hens.— (Dawley). — Morning, — mash, clover hay or 
crimson clover steamed over night; in the morning stirred up with a mixed feed of 100 
lbs. coarse wheat bran, 75 lbs. yellow corn meal, 100 lbs. ground oats, 50 to 75 lbs. 
linseed meal, a little charcoal, salt. Feed all they will eat clean. Noon, — green bone 
and vegetables. Night, — whole wheat and a little corn. 

(6). Ration for Fifty Laying Hens. — (Mrs. Reed). — A little grain scattered over 
night for an early morning feed. Mash when the sun is about two hours high ; take for 
fifty hens 8 qts. boiling water, 1 tablespoon fine salt, 1 teaspoon cayenne pepper, 1 teacup 
drippings or fat; into this stir corn meal 2 parts, wheat bran 1 part — to make a soft 
dough — not a batter. Feed very hot, in troughs, as much as they will eat up clean in 
one-half hour. Noon feed, — house scraps. Evening feed,— grain, principally corn on 
the cob ; wheat, rye, oats, barley, and buckwheat used with corn in rotation. 

(7). Ration for Laying Breeding Stock. — (Nesmith). — Morning, — a full feed 
of whole grain, principally wheat ; but barley, oats, buckwheat used often. Noon, — -a 
light feed of grain. Evening, — mash, of dried bread, cut clover, beef scraps and mixed 
meals, well cooked and fed warm — not hot — all they will eat. 

(8). Laying Ration for Twelve Wyandottes. — (Patton). — Morning, 1 qt. 
wheat in litter. Noon, — green food, clover, mangels or cabbage. Evening, — mash, 
8 parts corn meal, 8 parts fine bran, 4 parts buckwheat middlings, 3 parts meat meal, 2 
parts oil meal, a little salt ; all mixed in warm w-ater and fed crumbly, all they will eat 
clean. 

(9). Ration for Laying Hens. — Leghorns — in Cold House. — (Ewing & Fox). — 
Morning, — mash, 2 parts bran, 1 part corn meal, 1 qt. cut bone to 40 hens added every 
other day ; condition powder once a w-eek. Noon, — cabbage and a little grain, generally 
oats or barley. Night, — wheat and corn, alternating. 

(10). Ration for Adult Fowls. — (Curtis). — Morning, — mash one-half bran, the 
other half boiled potatoes, cracked corn, ground wheat, chopped oats, any special article 
at hand. Afternoon, — whole grain, in litter, corn and wheat, in summer equal parts; 
in winter two-thirds corn, one-third wheat. 



1 06 POULTR T- CRA FT. 

(11). Ration for Laying Breeding Stock. — (Buffintox). — Morning, — mash, 
corn meal and middlings, equal parts, a little beef scrap and (in winter) boiled potatoes, 
a little salt, egg food ; mixed with hot water and fed as soon as the fowls can see, except 
in the long summer days. Mash fed light, and a little dry grain, mixed, given after it. 
Afternoon feed, — dry grain, oats, corn and wheat, equal parts. 

(12). Ration for Thirteen Plymouth Rocks (male and twelve females) in Con= 
finement. — (Lash). — Morning and noon, — for pullets 1 pt. wheat, in litter; for hens 
three-quarters pt. Evening, — mash, 4 parts beans, 2 parts shorts, 3 parts ground oats, 
1 part ground corn, one-third the whole cut clover; every third day one-quarter the 
whole green bone; 2 tablespoons pulverized charcoal to bucket of feed every third day; 
wet with hot water, and when cool feed until the crops are about two-thirds full. 

(13). Ration for Laying Stock. — A Three -Day Rotation. — (Hunter). — Morn- 
ing, — mash, cooked vegetables mashed fine, or cut clover cooked by being brought to a 
boiling heat in water; to this add an equal amount of boiling water; to each bucket of 
feed use a tablespoon salt, and two days a heaping teaspoon condition powder, the third 
day of powdered charcoal. Make mash very stiff with mixed meal, — by measure, 1 part 
each corn meal, fine middlings, bran, ground oats, and animal meal, — the meal omitted 
or reduced in quantity wheh cut bone is fed. Mash omitted two days in each week. 
Noon, — light feed of grain. Evening, — full feed of grain. Grain fed in variety in 
rotation, thus : — 

Monday — oats (or barley), wheat, whole corn. 

Tuesday — mash, barley (or buckwheat), wheat. 

Wednesday — mash, cut bone, wheat. 

Cabbage, or split roots of beets, turnips, etc., fed often. 

(14). General Ration for Adult Fowls and for Chicks when given Three 
Meals a Day. — -Morning, — mash; by measure, 2 parts finely cut alfalfa, 2 parts heavy 
bran (bran and middlings), 1 part corn meal ; cook alfalfa in as much water as will make 
the quantity of mash needed of proper consistencj' (about the proportion of 5 gals, water 
to each peck of the hay) ; Avhen boiling stir in the corn meal, or chop, making a thick 
mush ; add the bran, making a very stiff, almost crumblv dough. Feed either hot or 
cold, all they will eat clean in ten to fifteen minutes. If other green food is abundant 
the hay may be omitted, (in which case not so much mash should be fed, and the green 
food given an hour or two after the mash). With the proportion of hay specified in the 
mash fowls need no other green food. Noon, — a light feed of oats or millet, dry or 
steamed; or of wheat — about one-half pint to every ten hens. Noon feed omitted on 
Sundays. Evening, — at 4 or 5 o'clock wheat, about 1 pint to every ten hens, in litter; 
at dusk whole corn to fowls that are waiting for it. Two or three times a week cut bone 
at mid-afternoon, and on these days the evening feed slightly reduced. 

(15). Ration for Small Flock, in Confinement, with Exercise. — Morning, — 
mashes ; alternating, one day table scraps and slops mixed cold with corn meal, shorts 
and bran equal parts; next day, 2 parts corn meal, 1 part fine shorts, 3 parts bran, a little 
meat meal. Make a thin mush of the corn meal, and pour while boiling over the other 
ingredients previously mixed dry in a pail; stir thoroughly to a stiff, almost crumbly 
dough ; feed when cool. (A mash made in this way needs time to cook by its own heat). 
At noon vegetables or steamed clover occasionally. Afternoon feed, 3 o'clock, — cracked 
corn in heavy litter, 1 qt. to twelve hens two days ; the third day same amount wneat. 
On cold evenings give at dusk all the whole corn that will be eaten greedily. 

(16). Forcing Ration for Broilers. — (Dustox). — First feed, — rolled oats, warm 
skim milk. First week, — rolled oats, millet seed, cracked corn. Second week, — use a 
little of a mash made of one-third corn meal to two-thirds wheat bran, seasoned with 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 1 07 

salt and red pepper. When chicks eat mash freely alternate hard and soft foods. Third 
week and after, — first feed in morning, hard grain ; next chopped raw potatoes followed 
by a little cut cabbage or onions. At 9 and 11 A. M., 1 and 3 P. M., mash. At 5 P. M., 
cracked corn. Finish off at six to eight weeks by adding cotton seed meal and a little 
treacle to the mash. 

(17). Ration for Broilers. — (Pressey). — First ten days, — baked cake, 3 qts. corn 
meal, 1 qt. wheat middlings, 1 cup meat meal; mix with water or skim milk, to which 
has been added 4 tablespoons vinegar, 2 teaspoons soda; mashed potato once a day. 
After ten days, take 2 parts corn, 1 part wheat, 1 part oats, ground fine; to each 10 qts. 
of this mixture 1 qt. bran, 1 pt. middlings, i pt. meat meal, one-half cup bone meal; 
mix stiff with warm water two hours before feeding. Fatten on a mixture of 2 parts 
corn, 1 part wheat, ground together, ground meat added ; mix stiff with warm water two 
hours before feeding ; feed three or four times a day. 

(18). Ration for Broilers. — (Howe). — First ten days, — johnnycake, 1 pt. corn 
meal, i teacup bran, i teaspoon ground meat, 1 raw egg, 1 teaspoon soda, 1 teacup cold 
water; bake two hours. After ten days, — ground wheat, oats and corn, moistened. 
Oyster shell, bone and charcoal before the chicks in separate dishes. 

(19). Ration for Broilers.— (Peterson). — First ten days, — stale bread crumbs 
moistened with milk, alternated with dry bread crumbs at two hour intervals; skim milk 
to drink. After ten days, — ground corn 1 part to ground wheat 2 parts, moistened. 

(20). Ration for Broilers. — (White). — First week,— plain johnnycake, baked 
without soda. After first week, — mash, equal parts corn meal, bran and middlings, with 
a little meat scraps. (Lessen middlings if chicks become costive; increase middlings if 
chicks show looseness). Scatter a little grain about to induce exercise between feeds. 
Have grit and charcoal constantly by them ; if chicks do not voluntarily eat charcoal it is 
mixed in the mash. 

(21). Ration for Chicks.— (Hunter). — First feed, — hard boiled eggs, chopped fine 
1 part, to dry bread crumbs 3 parts. First five or six weeks, — coarse oat meal moistened 
with skim milk alternated at two hour intervals with dry bread crumbs until 4 P. M., 
then feed cracked wheat or corn. Meat twice a week; green food often. From six to 
ten weeks old, — morning, bread crumbs ; 10 A. M., oat meal ; 1.30 P. M., cracked wheat ; 
5 P. M., whole wheat and cracked corn, alternately; vegetables and meat continued as 
before. After ten weeks, — rations as for adult fowls. (See 1Ti3). 

(22). Ration for Chicks for Stock Birds. — (Boyer). — First week, — rolled oats or 
pin head oat meal fed in troughs, alternate with stale bread crumbs, dry; boiled milk to 
drink. After first week — mash, 2 parts bran, 1 part corn meal, (or 2 parts bran, 1 part 
corn meal, 1 part ground w-heat), a handful of meat scraps to a pail of mash. After two- 
weeks give also cracked wheat and corn. Keep grit, oyster shell, and powdered charcoal 
by them. Feed freely green tops ; or, if these cannot be had, roast potatoes cut in 
halves. 

(23). Ration for Chicks for Stock Birds.— (Rudd). — First two weeks, — crumbled 
johnnycake (from waste bread) and granulated oats, dry; green food and powdered 
charcoal constantly before them. After two weeks whole or broken wheat and cracked 
corn added. At three weeks begin to give moist food, stale bread soaked in sweet milk, 
thickened with corn meal, — meal about one-half of the whole. At four weeks discontinue 
granulated oats. Cracked corn always before the chicks until they are old enough to eat 
whole corn, then whole corn alwavs before them until full grown. 

(24). Ration for Chicks for Stock Birds. — (Ff.lch). — First meal, — boiled eggs 
chopped fine, shell and all, with baked corn cake, or excelsior meal cake, crumbled 



108 PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

with scalded milk; then, morning, excelsior meal bread and scalded milk; 10 A. M., 
granulated corn; 2 P. M., excelsior meal bread and scalded milk; 6 P. M., canary seed, 
millet seed, granulated corn. After two weeks a varied diet, two soft feeds alternating 
with two hard feeds, excelsior meal bread frequently given, and morning mash often 
mixed with meat or in broth of meat ; green food fed regularly. 

Excelsior Meal — grind together 20 lbs. corn, 15 lbs. oats, 10 lbs. barley; add 10 lbs. 
wheat bran. To make cakes : take, — one quart sour milk or buttermilk, add a little salt 
and molasses, a quart of water, a heaping teaspoon saleratus ; thicken with the meal, a 
little thicker than batter for corn cakes; bake in shallow pans. 

(25). Ration for Chicks for Stock.— (Lambert).— Corn, wheat, oats, equal parts, 
ground; mix with milk, bake; feed all they will eat five times a day, at three hour 
intervals. After four weeks alternate with cracked corn, crushed wheat, etc. Use whole 
corn and wheat as soon as it is eaten easily. If milk cannot be obtained for johnnycake, 
mix alternately with desiccated fish and animal meal. 

(26). Ration for Chicks on Range. — (Mrs. Thomas). — Warm mash (same as for 
old fowls), in the morning; millet where they can get it all day long; whole wheat at 
night ; night feed varied occasionally by using other grains. 

(27). Rations for Chicks, for Stock Birds on Limited Range or in Roomy 
Yards. — Winter. — Morning, — mash as for old fowls (H14) ; 9 A. M., baked cake of corn 
chop and house scraps, made as follows : add a little soda to sour milk ; throw in the 
scraps, finely broken ; stir in the chop to make a very stiff batter. (The stiffer the better. 
Thin batter takes longer to bake, and bakes with a thicker, tougher crust) ; bake in deep 
pans, well greased. Feed the heart of this cake in chunks, the crust crumbled or cut in a 
bone cutter. Feed cake again at 11.30 A. M. and 2.30 P. M. At dusk feed whole wheat. 
Give both milk and water to drink, boiling the milk if there are symptoms of looseness 
of the bowels. Summer. — 5.30 A. M., mash; 7.30 A. M., green food, lettuce or cabbage; 
9 A. M., corn cake; 11 A. M., millet; 2 P. M., corn cake; 4 P. M., corn cake, meat, or 
green food; 6 to 7 P. M., whole wheat, all they will eat, followed by corn either cracked 
or whole. (It will be found that chicks after eating their fill of one kind of food will 
shortly, if given the opportunity, stuff themselves on another. It will not hurt them in 
the least to do this in the evening, and this method of feeding can be made very effective 
in forcing growth). 

(28). Rations for Chicks on Good (Orchard) Range. — Mash (as in (I15)), 5.30 
A. M. ; cracked corn, 9.30 A. M. ; cracked corn, whole wheat, or mash, 2 P. M. ; cracked 
corn, 6 P. M. 

147. Good Feeding Requires Skill. — No matter how thorough a 
" book knowledge" one may have of the properties of foods and the principles 
of feeding, no matter how familiar he may be with accepted formulas for 
correct feeding, or how closely he may follow a good system of feeding, he 
finds that good feeding depends finally on Skill. Skill is acquired only 
through practice. Skill in feeding is not merely mechanical. It depends on 
a judgment trained to observe, closely and without conscious effort, the 
appearances of fowls, to note beginnings of departures from normal growing 
or producing conditions, and to decide, as if by instinct, how to preserve or 
restore the health of the fowls. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 109 



CHAPTER VIII. 



Science in Poultry Feeding. 

148. Where Common Knowledge Fails. — Purely practical knowledge 
and skill, enough for ordinary use, can be acquired without study of the 
science of feeding. The simple instruction which helps to a common sense 
understanding of the needs of an animal organism and plain knowledge of 
the properties of the staple poultry foods, is enough for most poultry keepers 
— enough for all as long as only familiar articles are used in approved combi- 
nations. But when it is advisable to use other articles or untested combina- 
tions, this common knowledge fails. It has not equipped the feeder to work 
out feeding problems for himself. Work at them he may, through a tiresome 
and expensive course of haphazard experiments, but there is no need that he 
should follow such a course. An elementary knowledge of the science of 
feeding, and access to a table giving the analyses of the food stuffs he wishes 
to use, make it possible for him to formulate rations with absolute certainty 
as to their theoretic value, and reasonable expectation of their practical feeding 
value. 

149. Food Requirements of Fowls. — The food which a fowl eats has 
three functions : (1). To develop and maintain its organic structure ; (2). To 
keep it warm — to keep up heat in the body; (3). To furnish the strength — 
energy — which is expended in every movement. The chemical elements 
which maintain these functions are found in combination in every article of 
food, constituting its digestible matter; in the staple grains they occur in 
nearly the proportions required by fowls under average normal conditions. 

150. Food Elements may be classed as: Principal and Subordinate. 

Principal Food Elements are : 

(1). Proteids (or protein) albuminous, or nitrogenous matter; in grains, 
gluten ; in milk, casein ; in meat and blood, fibrin ; in bones, gelatin. Pro- 
tein is the nourishing matter, supplying material for bone, muscle, blood, 
feathers, eggs. 



no POULTR T- CRAFT. 

(2). Carbohydrates (technically, "nitrogen-free extract"), carbonaceous 
matter, principally starches. Carbohydrates form the bulk of the dry matter 
in nearly all foods, and are the principal sources of heat and energy, which, 
as is well known, are convertible. 

(3). Fats. — Found to some extent in eveiy article of food. Their function 
is to furnish heat and energy, on demand, in addition to the supply from the 
carbohydrates, to store up fat as a reserve of heat and energy within the 
body, and to furnish the material for elementary growth cells which are 
developed by the protein. Fat also enters largely into the composition of the 
egg, forming nearly one-half its solids. 

As far as known these elements have the same properties, no matter what 
the form in which they occur. In the last effect, it makes no difference 
whether the sources of the protein, carbohydrates and fats assimilated were 
vegetable or animal. It is known, however, that in animal foods the elements 
are more completely digestible than in grains, and more digestible in grains 
than in vegetables and fruits ; and it has been observed that of two foods, one 
animal, the other vegetable, containing large and nearly equal proportions of 
protein or of fat, the animal food is generally preferred — is more palatable. 
In formulating working standards and in making practical applications of the 
laws of foods, using the chemical analyses of articles, the principal elements 
are regarded as completely digestible. The subordinate elements are regarded 
;as indigestible, and are omitted from calculations. The results thus obtained, 
while not strictly accurate, are sufficiently so for practical purposes. 

Subordinate Food Elements are : 

( 1 ) . Ash — lime and other mineral matter, occurring generally in very 
small quantities, except in such articles as bone and shell — partly digestible. 

(2). Fiber, husks or waste matter — mostly, if not completely indigestible. 

151. Principal Elements Can Mutually Assist Each Other. — The 

principal food elements, though having each its special function, are not wholly 
independent. Within limits they may be said to be able, on occasion, to do 
each other's work. The relations of fats and carbohydrates have been indi- 
cated. Carbohydrates are cheap fuels for ordinary use. Fats are expensive 
fuels for emergency use. Any deficiency of carbohydrates and fats in a ration 
will be at least partially made up by the diversion of a part of the protein from 
its proper function. With a sufficiency of carbonaceous matter, the entire 
consumption of protein is available for growth and maintenance. Further than 
this, a deficiency of protein is not made up from the other elements. Scientific 
opinion as to the effects of feeding the various elements to excess is not unani- 
mous, nor are any of its expressions decided enough to be taken as authoritative. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 1 1 1 

It is said that an excess of carbohydrates pours through the system undigested. 
That supposition is contrary to the known effects of feeding heavily of carbon- 
aceous matter. The immediate consequence of feeding fat to excess is scour- 
ing. Some authorities on feeding say all the protein taken into the system is 
used : i. e. — an excess of protein is impossible. But this is not in accordance 
with practical experience in feeding " narrow" or highly nitrogenous rations. 
Experience teaches that such rations cause digestive troubles as surely, if not 
as quickly, as an excess of fats. 

152. Food Values. — There are two standards of measurements of food 
values : 

(i). The measurement of quality, of proportionate value of principal ele- 
ments : — Nutritive Ratio. 

(2). The measure of bulk, of content, of degree of concentration, of total 
heating capacity : — Potential Energy. 

The Nutritive Ratio of a food (single article or mixture) is the ratio of 
its proteids to its carbohydrates and fats, reduced to terms of carbohydrates ; — 
one pai-t of fat by weight having a fuel value two and one-half times as great 
as an equal weight of carbohydrates. The chemical analysis of a food being 
known, the nutritive ratio is determined thus, taking corn as the example : 

Corn (see table, H153) contains 10.4 parts protein, 70.3 parts carbohydrates, 
5 parts fat : its nutritive ratio is : 

10.4: 7°-3+(5X2.5) = 1 : 7.9. 

The Potential Energy of a food is the gross fuel value of its digestible 
matter. It is expressed in calories per ounce. A calory is the amount of 
heat required to raise one gram of water one degree centigrade. One ounce 
of carbohydrates or protein has a potential energy of one hundred and sixteen 
calories. One ounce of fat has a potential energy of two hundi'ed and sixty- 
four calories. The potential energy of any food substance of which the 
chemical composition is known is calculated thus, taking corn again as the 
example, and using the figures in the table as percentages of an ounce : 
( 264 X- 05 )-)-(. 703 -\-.i 04) 116 = 106. 

The nutritive ratio and potential energy of each single article may, when 
computing values of compound foods, or of rations, be regarded as constant 
quantities. As a matter of fact, they vary greatly in different samples of the 
same article, but calculations from the figures in the table, which are averages 
of a large number of analyses, may pi"operly be assumed to give the average 
and usual values of the different foods. 

The values of a ration vary with its ingredients, and are calculated from 
averages of the values of the ingredients. (See ^[158). 



ii2 POULTRY- CRA FT. 

153. Table of Analyses and Computed Values of Food Stuffs.* 



Foods. 



Com (Maize) and Com 

Products. 

Field corn 

Sweet corn 

Pop corn 

Small and immature ears 

of field corn 

Cracked corn 

Corn meal 

Corn and cob meal 

Corn germ 

Hominy chops § 

Gluten meal 

Starch feed (wet) 



Wheat and Wheat Prod- 
ucts. 

Wheat 

Wheat screenings 

Low grade flour 

Wheat bran 

Wheat middlings 

Dry bread 



Oats and Oat Products. 

Oats 

Oat meal 

Oat bran 

Oat feed 

Oat middlings 



Barley and Barley Prod- 
ucts. 

Barley 

Barley screenings 

Barley meal 

Malt sprouts 

Brewers' grains (wet) .... 
Brewers' grains (dry) .... 
Distillers' waste 



Buckwheat and Buck- 
wheat Products. 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat groats II 

Buckwheat bran 

Buckwheat middlings • • • 

Rye and Rye Products. 

Rye 

Rye bran 



Gross 

contents, 

percentages. 



10.9 

8.8 
10.7 

35-7 
12.3 
15.0 

i5-i 
10.7 
11. 1 
9.6 
65-4 



10.5 
11.6 
12.4 
11. 9 
12. 1 
31.2 



1 1.0 
7-9 

7-7 
8.2 
9.2 



10.9 

12.4 
1 1.9 
10.2 

75-7 
8.2 
5.0 



12.6 
10.6 
14.0 
13.2 



11. 6 
11. 6 






89-5 
88.4 
87.6 
88.1 
87.9 
68.8 



89.0 
92.1 

92-3 
91.8 
90.8 



87.6 
88.1 
89.8 

H-3 
91.8 

95-o 



8 7 . 4 
89.4 
86.0 
86.8 



ss. 



Composition of dry matter, in 
percentages of the whole. 



1.9 
2.8 
1.8 



1.9 

6.6 
4.1 
3-8 
1.6 

3- 1 



1.8 
4.9 
0.9 
0.9 
4.6 



9-5 
0.9 

19-3 
12.5 

3-8 



2.7 
7.6 

6-5 
10.7 

3-8 

11. o 

8.0 



8.7 
°-3 

H-7 

4.1 



i-7 
3-5 



i-5 
1.9 

i-5 

0.9 

i-3 
1.4 

i-5 
4.0 

2-5 

0.7 
3-o 



i.S 
2.9 
0.7 
5-3 
3-3 



3-o 
2.0 

3-7 

4.2 

3-2 



2.4 
3-6 
2.6 

5-7 
1.0 

3-6 

[I -3 



2.0 
0.6 

3-4 
4.8 



1.9 
3-6 



10.4 
11. 6 
11. 2 

7-3 
8.6 
9.2 

8-5 

9.8 

9-3 

29.4 

6.1 



11.9 
12.5 
10. o 

15-4 
15.6 

6.9 



11. 8 
H-7 
7-i 
12.6 
20.0 



12.4 
12.2 
10.5 
23.2 

5-4 
19.9 
27.4 



10. 

4.8 

17. 1 
28.9 



10.6 

14.7 



U 



70.3 
66.8 
69.2 

50.7 
73-9" 
68.7 
64.8 
64.0 
64-5 

5 2 -4 
22.0 



71.9 
65.1 

75 -° 
53-9 
60.4 
44.2 



59-7 
67.4 

57-9 
56.3 
56.2 



69.8 
61.6 
66.3 

4S-5 
12.5 

5i-7 
36.1 



64-5 
83.1 
46.4 
41.9 



72-5 
63.8 



5-o 

8.1 

5-2 

3-5 
3-9 
3-8 
3-5 
7-4 
8-3 
6-3 
3-i 



2.1 

3-o 

1.0 
4.0 
4.0 
0.5 



5-o 

7-i 

2-3 

6.2 
7.6 



1.8 
2.6 

i-7 
1.6 

5-6 
12.2 



2.2 
0.6 
4.4 

7-i 



i-7 
2.8 



Valuation. 



7-9 
7-5 
7-3 



9-5 
8-5 
8.6 
8.4 
8-7 
2-3 
4.8 



6-3 

5-8 
7-7 
4.1 

4-7 
6.6 



1 : 6.1 

1: 5.8 

1 : 8.9 

1: 5-7 

1 : 3-7 



6 

5-5 
6.8 

2-3 

3 
3-3 

2.4 



1 : 7 

I : 17 

1 : 3-3 
1 : 2.1 



1 : 7.2 
1 : 4.8 



* The analyses here given are taken principally from United States Government Bulletins. 
t Including fiber. § Baltimore meal. || Hulled or crushed buckwheat. 



f In one ounce. 



PO UL TR2- CRAFT. 
Analyses and Computed Values of Food Stuffs. — Continued. 



IX 3 



Foods. 



Mixed Feeds. 

Ground corn and oats 
equal parts 

Corn and bran feed, 8 
parts corn, 5 parts 
bran 

Corn, rye and oats 

" Provender," 450 lbs. 
corn, 125 lbs. oats, 
100 lbs. bran 



Miscella neous. 

Sorghum seed 

Sorghum seed meal • . ■ 

Broom corn seed 

Broom corn seed meal- 
Sorghum, chicken corn 

Chinese corn 

Brown dhoura + 

Millet 

Hemp seed 

Rape seed 

Flaxseed 

Ground linseed 

Linseed meal, old process 
Linseed meal, newproce 

Cotton seed meal 

Cotton seed hulls 

Sunflower seed 

Rice 

Rice bran 

Rice hulls 

Rice (flour) polish .... 

Cockle bran 

Cocoa dust 



Dry Hay. 
Red clover • . 
White clover 

Alfalfa 

Timothy 



Grass and Tops. 
Green grass, clippings- 

Cabbage 

Dandelion tops 

Beet tops 

Onion tops 

Lettuce 



Gross 

contents, 

percentages. 



11.9 



n-5 
10.4 



9-4 

12.8 
13.2 
14.1 

13-5 
14.8 

7-9 
7.6 

13-5 
8.0 

13.8 
11. 8 

S.i 

9.2 
10. 1 

8.2 
10.4 

8.0 
12.4 

9-7 
8.2 

10. 

11. 1 

7-i 



J5-3 
9-7 
8.4 

13.2 



7b-4 
9°-5 
14-5 
90.0 
91.0 

95-9 
Spinach j 92.4 



E 
Q 



88. 1 



88.5 
89.6 



90.6 



87.2 
86.8 

85-9 
86.5 
85.2 
92.1 
92.4 
86.5 
92.0 
86.2 
8S.2 
91.9 
91.8 
89.9 
91.8 
89.6 
92.0 
87.6 

90-3 
91.8 
90.0 
88.9 
92.9 



8 4 . 7 

90-3 
91.6 
86.8 



23.6 
9-5 
35-5 
10. o 
9.0 
4.1 
7.6 



Composition of dry matter, in 
percentages of the whole. 



10.4 



2.6 

1.8 

7-i 
6.9 

8.7 
1.8 

i-5 

9-5 

14.0 

10. o 
7-9 
7-3 

8.9 

9-5 

5-6 

44.4 

28.5 

0.2 

9-5 

35-7 

6-3 

9.2 

5-4 



24.S 
24.1 
25.0 
29.0 



4.1 
i-5 



o-5 
0.7 















01 












rt 






-5 






•9 >- 


t/5 





8-° 


< 


Cu 


u 


2.2 


9.6 


71.94 


2.7 


10.6 


71. 2t 


1.9 


10.6 


73-7t 


3- 1 


13.0 


58.8 


2.1 


9.1 


70.0 


1.6 


8-3 


7i 


3 


2.0 


9.6 


64 


7 


2.1 


9-7 


64 


2 


4-3 


10.6 


58 


9 


i-5 


9.0 


75 


5 


i-7 


9.0 


76 





3-° 


12.7 


58 





2.0 


10. 


45 





3-9 


19.4 


10 


4 


3-4 


21.7 


19 


b 


4-7 


21.6 


27 


9 


5-7 


32-9 


35 


4 


5-8 


33-2 


38 


4 


7.2 


4 2 -3 


23 


6 


2.6 


4.0 


36 


6 


3-o 


13.0 


23 


9 


0.4 


7-4 


79 


2 


10. 


12. 1 


49 


9 


I3- 2 


3-6 


38 


6 


6.7 


11. 7 


58 





3- 2 


10.6 


63 


5 


°-3 


14.4 


42.8 


6.2 


12.3 


3S.1 


8-3 


15-7 


39-3 


7-4 


H-3 


42.7 


4-4 


5-9 


45 -o 


2.4 


2-3 


13.S 


1.4 


2.4 


3-9 


0.5 


2-5 


7-3 


0.1 


i-3 


2-3 


0.1 


0.8 


3-° 


o.S 


1.0 


1.6 


1.9 


2.1 


2 


-1 



4-4 



4.0 
3-4 



5-3 



3-3 
2.9 

2.2 

2-5 



0.4 
0.6 

o-3 



0.2 
o-5 



Valuation. 



<D 


~z ^ 


.£ 6 


.2 he 








c &> 


£tf 




% 


CU 



8.6 



1: 7.6 
1:74 



8.6 

9-7 
7.6 

7-3 

6.2 

8.8 

9.6 

5-2 

9-7 

6-3 

5 

4 .8 

i-7 
1.4 

i-3 

10. 1 

6-3 
10. 9 

5-9 

11. 2 

6-5 
6-5 

7 



3-7 
2.9 

3-4 

8.7 



3-5 

2-3 



i-7 



106 



105 
106 



97 



102 

102 

95 

95 

87 

108 

no 

83 
119 

H7 
141 

i37 
99 
9 1 

in 

52 
105 
101 

95 
48 
80 
82 
129 



67 
7i 

7i 
66 



15 
8 

J 3 

5 
8 

4 
6 



In one ounce, t Including fiber. J Also, durra and dari, akin to Kaffir corn and Millo maize. 



H4 POULTRY-CRAFT. 

Analyses and Computed Values of Food Stuffs. — Continued. 



Foods. 



Seeds 



Vegetables 

Peas 

Cow peas 

Pea meal 

White field beans 

Navy beans 

Soja beans 



Vegetables — Fruits. 

Tomatoes 

Apples 

Cucumbers 

Pumpkin, flesh .... 
Pumpkin, seeds 
stringy part • • • 



and 



Vegetables — Roots. 

White potatoes 78.9 

Sweet potatoes 71. 1 

Red beets 88.5 

Sugar beets . ". 86.5 

Mangel wurzels- 9°-9 

Turnips 9°-5 

Ruta bagas 88.6 

Carrots 88.6 

Parsnips j 81.0 

Onions I 87.6 

Peanuts, hulled ' 10.9 



Gross 

contents, 

percentages. 



13-4 
14.8 
10.5 
15.0 
12.4 
10.8 



91-3 
84.1 
96.0 
93-5 

76.9 



Milk. 

Whole milk 

Skim milk, raised • • 
Skim milk, separated 
Buttermilk 



Animal Food. 
Beef scrap. • • • 
Pork scrap • . . 
Dried blood . . 
Green bones- . 



87.2 
90.4 
90.6 
90.1 



i-3 
0.8 
6.7 
6.9 



Q 



86.8 
85.2 

§9-5 
85.0 
87.6 
89.2 



8.7 

15-9 

/.o 

1 5 
23.1 



21. 1 
28.9 
"•5 
i3-5 
9.1 

9-5 
11.4 
11.4 
19.0 
12.4 
89.1 



9.6 
9.4 
9.9 



98.7 
99.2 
93-3 
93- 1 



Composition of dry matter, in 
percentages of the whole. 



6.4 

4.1 

14.4 

3-2 

7.2 



0.7 
0.9 
0.7 

1.0 
3-9 



0.6 

i-3 
0.9 
0.9 
0.9 
1.2 

!-3 

i-3 

6-3 
0.7 

3- 1 



2.4 

3-2 
2.6 

3-i 
3-7 
4-7 



0.7 
0.2 

o-5 
0.6 

i-5 



1.0 
1.0 
1.0 

0.9 

I.I 

0.8 

1.2 

1.0 
1.0 

0.6 

3-S 



8.0 

2.2 
6.6 
Ho 



22.4 
20.S 
20.2 
20.4 
22.2 
34-° 



1.0 
0.2 
0.8 
0.9 

6.0 



3 1 



3-5 
3-i 
2.9 

3-9 



58.0 

57-4 
65.1 



52.6 
55-7 
5i-i 
56-7 
53- 1 
28.8 



5-3 

H-3 
1.8 

3-9 



17-3 

24.7 

8.0 

9.8 

5-5 
6.2 

7-5 
7.6 

8-5 

9-4 

46.9 



4.8 

4-7 
5-2 
4.0 



5-3 



3-o 

i-4 

1.2 
1.6 

!-4 

16.9 



o-5 
o-3 
0.2 
0.1 

6.9 



O.I 

0.4 

O.I 
O.I 

0.2 
0.2 
0.2 

'0.4 

1.6 
o-3 
3-8 



3-7 
o.S 

°-3 

1.0 



32-9 
39-6 
16.3 
16.5 



Valuation. 



X 



2.4 

2.8 

2.6 

3 

2.5 
2.1 



7 
75 
2.8 
4.6 



8.3 
17. 1 
5-5 
5-5 
4-3 
6 

6.6 
7.8 
7.8 

7- 
1.4 



1: 4 
1 : 2 



1: 1.6 



M 



0.6 
1.8 



* In one ounce. 



154. Working Standards of Nutritive and Potential Values. — The 

feeding values, as deter?nlned by practical results, of the common articles 
and compounds of food being known ; the average proportions and 
potencies of their parts, as determined by chemists, being also known ; the 
determination of working standards of nutritive ratio and potential energy 
becomes a simple mathematical calculation. 



POULTR T- CRA FT. x T 5 

The mash described in f 146, (2), has — computing the values of its solids, 
the amount of beef scraps being doubled, as the weight of milk used is not 
known, — a nutritive ratio of 1:5.1; a potential energy of 99 calories per 
ounce. The mixed grain fed with this mash has, in summer, a nutritive ratio 
of 1 : 6.S ; a potential energy of 95 : in winter, a nutritive ratio of 1 : 6.8 ; a 
potential energy of 96. The means of these values may fairly be taken as the 
values of the complete ration, for Fhe feed of green stuff given at noon is too 
light to materially affect the values of the ration as a whole, and its tendency to 
reduce these values is offset by the occasional noon feeds of grain with their 
tendency to increase the values. The mean values are for the summer ration 
nutritive ratio 1:5.9; potential energy 97; for the winter ration, nutritive 
ratio 1:6; potential energy 97.5. 

Wheat, the best grain for poultry, itself a practically complete grain ration, 
has a nutritive ratio of 1 : 6.3 ; a potential energy of 102. Barley, the next 
best grain, has a nutritive ratio of 1 : 6 ; a potential energy of 100. A mixture 
of corn and wheat, equal parts, has a nutritive ratio of 1 : 7.1 ; a potential 
energy of 104. A mash of 3 parts corn meal to 1 part shorts, recommended 
by one of the highest authorities, on feeding (Rankin), to use with wheat and 
corn as a food for young chicks, has a nutritive ratio of 1 : 7 ; a potential energy 
of 100. (The green food used with that ration would slightly narrow the ratio 
and reduce the energy). Germ meal, a mixture of equal parts ground oats, 
corn, barley and wheat, has a nutritive ratio of 1 :6.6; a potential eneroy of 
101. A mixture of bran, corn meal and oat meal, equal parts, has a nutritive 
ratio of 1:5.5; a potential energy of 101. The mixture (see ^[146 (5) ) of 
100 lbs. bran, 75 lbs. corn, 100 lbs. oats, 50 lbs. linseed meal, has a nutritive 
ratio of 1 : 5.5 ; a potential energy of 100. " Excelsior Meal " (see ^146 (24) ) 
has a nutritive ratio of 1 : 6 ; a potential energy of 101. 

The averages of these values give for the standard of Nutritive Ratio, 
1:6; for the standard of Potential Energy 100 calories per ounce.* 

Computed values of approved fattening rations give a standard for nutritive 
ratio, 1 : 8 ; for potential energy, 10S. 

*Note. — The method which arrives at these standards is, perhaps, shirt-sleeves science. 
It is more accurate, none the less, than the more formal method of those who may rightly 
be called the founders of the science of poultry feeding. This practical tests will show. 
The trouble with students of the science of poultry feeding, has been that they were 
better scientists than poultry men, and have been establishing standards and deducing 
principles from the data of experiments, which, from a practical standpoint, were partial 
failures. Such standards as, nutritive ratio 1 : 3.3 for young chicks ; 1 :4for laying hens; 
1 : 6 for special fattening ; with potential energies ranging from 50 to 90, are not practi- 
cable. The feeder learns this as soon as he begins to use them. They were suggested 
by false analogies from cattle feeding standards. Milk, which is a perfect food — for a 
young calf — has a nutritive ratio of 1 : 4. The chicks' digestive organs are adapted to a 
concentrated food : therefore — it was reasoned — the nutritive ratio for chicks must be 
narrower. The contrary of this proposition is true : the nutritive ratio of a concentrated 
food must be wider than of a bulky food. The reasons for this need not be given here. 
The fact can be verified by examining the table. It will appear that natural foods having 



1 1 6 POULTR T-CRAFT. 

155. Use of Feeding Standards. — The practical value of a scientific 
knowledge of feeding is that it enables a feeder to make up his ration " in the 
rough" with absolute certainty that he has made no radical error — none that 
will not in the natural course of things soon be adjusted. A ration based on 
(not necessarily adhering rigidly to) a correct standard is, in the hands of 
a skillful feeder, practically self-adjusting. The calculations of values in 
approved rations show that for ordinary purposes variations from the standard, 
if made at all, need be but very slight ; for the differences between supply and 
demand are not usually greater than will be controlled by the involuntary 
adjustments of the natural checks and balances, viz. : — the limited capacity of 
the digestive organs ; the sense of taste, the instincts of hunger, the natural 
cravings of a healthy appetite for the food articles best suited to meet present 
requirements of the system ; the convertibility of the principal food elements; 
the tendency of the fowl's system to make the most of the food taken, expend- 
ing some in egg production, using some for growth, storing some as fat, 
squandering some as exuberant energy — these are all constantly working to 
bring about a proper balance of means and results, and the feeder's part must 
be very badly done, indeed, if they fail. 

156. Extent of Actual Variations, from the Standards, in Complete 
Rations. — The system's demands for material for growth, or maintenance, 
and strength, are, on the whole, very nearly constant for mature fowls, and 
uniformly increasing for chicks. Fluctuations > in food requirements are due 
principally to variations in the amount of heat required to keep the body warm. 
The standards of ratio and energy ascertained are for average conditions, such 
as obtain generally in moderate weather, and in warm houses in cold weather. 
Under such conditions the values of the grain ration are the values of the 
whole ration, the small quantities of vegetables and meat eaten affecting it but 
little. In summer the food actually consumed by a properly fed fowl would 
have a narrower nutritive ratio than i : 6, and potential energy lower than ioo. 
The reduction would follow reduction in the quantity of the grain ration, and 
large increase in the quantity of vegetables eaten, and would be governed 
solely by the appetites of the fowls. In winter the heat of the body is 
maintained partly by feeding more heating foods, but mostly by warm housing 
and by giving the food and drink warm. The actual variation of a ration from 

narrow nutritive i-atios are bulky foods, diluted either with water or with fiber. Low 
potential energies are for hot-house conditions. Narrow nutritive ratios are extravagant. 
Protein is the rarest and most costly food element. If one feeder uses a ration with a 
nutritive ratio of i : 4, and another a ration with a nutritive ratio of 1 : 6, the general con- 
ditions and the results in both cases being alike, the inevitable conclusion is that the wider 
ratio furnished, at least, as much protein as the system needed, and that one-third of the 
protein of the narrower ration was used for fuel. It would be no easy matter to find a 
ration compounded with a view to cheapness and the best all round results, and proved 
by long practical tests, which would, when computed, show a nutritive ratio anything 
like as narrow as 1:4, or a potential energy lower than 90, except, possibly, in 
extremely hot weather. 



POULTR T- CRA FT. 1 1 7 

the standard is much greater in warm weather than in cold. Computations 
for summer rations, in the hottest weather, would, without doubt, sometimes 
show nutritive ratio as narrow as 1:4, and potential energy as low as 50; — 
but not very often. Computations of good winter rations, for rather cold 
houses, would rarely show values exceeding those of the average fattening 
ration. 



157. The Balance of the Ration. — It is clear that a ration can be exactly 
balanced only at rare intervals, and then, as it were, only for the instant. Then 
if the ration is sufficient in quantity, there must be excess of either one kind of 
elements or the other. For economic reasons it is desirable that the excess be 
of the cheaper elements — the carbohydrates. The ration should always be a 
little wide, rather than a little narrow. 

158. Examples in Balancing Rations: — 

(1). To compute the values of the ration described in ^[146 (2) : 
Corn contains (see table, ^[153) 10.4% protein, 70.3% carbohydrates, 5% 
fat; wheat, 11.9% protein, 71.9% carbohydrates, 2.1% fat; bran, 15.4% 
protein, 53.9% carbohydrates, 4% fat; beef scraps, 58% protein, 32.9% fat; 
then 



94 lbs. corn contain 
106 lbs. oats contain 
100 lbs. bran contain 

12 lbs. beef scraps contain 

312 lbs. mixture contain 44-63 1S3.26 x 7-94 

and the nutritive ratio of the mash is : 

44.63: (17.94X2.5) +183.26 = 1 : 5.1 ; 
and potential energy for 312 lbs. is : 

(17. 94X i6X264)+[ (44.63 X 183.26) 16X116] =494.208 calories, 
and potential energy per oz. is 99 calories. 

The computation of the whole grain given in this ration gives : — 

Protein Carbohydrates Fats 

lbs. lbs. lbs. 

120 lbs. wheat contain 14. 28 86.40 2.52 

64 lbs. oats contain 7.5$ 38. 20 3.2 

120 lbs. buckwheat contain 12. 77-4° 2.64 

56 lbs. corn contain 5.82 39-36 2 -8 



Protein 


Carbohydrates 


Fats 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


9-77 


66.0S 


4-7 


12.5 


63.2S 


5-3 


15-4 


53-9 


4- 


6.96 




3-94 



360 lbs. mixture contain 39-65 241.36 11. 16 

Nutritive ratio, 1 : 6.S ; potential energy, 95 calories per ounce. 



n8 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 



(2). 



20 lbs. potatoes contain 
10 lbs. oat middlings contain 
10 lbs. corn meal contain 
20 lbs. wheat bran contain 
3 lbs. pork scrap contain 

63 lbs. mixture contain 



'rotein 
lbs. 


Carbohydrates 

lbs. 


Fats 

lbs. 


.42 

.92 
3.08 


3-4 6 

5.62 

6.S7 

10.78 


.02 
.76 
•38 

.8 


I.72 




1.1S 


S.i4 


26.73 


3-H 



Nutritive ratio, 1:4; potential energy, 75 calories per ounce. 

Fed with whole corn, one feed mash one feed corn per day, the ration has 
a nutritive ratio of 1 : 5.9 ; a potential energy of 90 calories per ounce. 



(3: 



5 lbs. alfalfa hay contain 
20 lbs. corn meal contain 
20 lbs. wheat bran contain 

2 lbs. dried blood contain 

47 lbs. mixture contain 



-"rotein 
lbs. 


Carbohydrates 
lbs. 


•71 


2.13 


I.84 


J 3-74 


3.08 


.10.78 


i-3 


.i 



Fats 
lbs. 



.II 

.76 

.8 
•33 



6-93 



26.75 



Nutritive ratio, 1 : 4.6; potential energy, 94 calories per ounce. 

This fed for one-third the whole ration, the other two-thirds being corn and 
oats equal parts, gives nutritive ratio, 1 : 6.1 ; potential energy, 101 calories per 
ounce. Fed with whole corn equal parts, it gives, nutritive ratio, 1: 6.1; 
potential energy, 100 calories per ounce. 



(4)- 



5 lbs. cut clover contain 
5 lbs. cotton seed meal contain 
20 lbs. corn meal contain 
20 lbs. wheat bran contain 

50 lbs. mixture contain 



Protein 
lbs. 


Carbohydrates 

lbs. 


Fats 
lbs. 


.61 


1.9 


.16 


2. II 


1. 18 


•65 


I.84 


13-74 


.76 


3.08 


IO.78 


.8 


7.64 


27.60 


2-37 



Nutritive ratio, 1 : 4.4; potential energy, 94 calories per ounce. 

Fed with corn equal parts, gives nutritive ratio, 1 : 6.1 ; potential energy, 
100 calories per ounce. 

Fed with grain one-third rice, two-thirds corn, gives nutritive ratio, 1 : 7.1 ; 
potential energy, 100 calories per ounce. 

In making trial form?ilas for rations, the simplest method is to write 
the formiila for parts, by weight ; / part being always I ounce, as in the 
following examples : 



'rotein 


Carbohydrates 


Fats 


ozs. 


ozs. 


ozs. 


.2S9 


.419 


.071 


.092 


.6S7 


.03S 


■I54 


•539 


.04 


•535 


1.645 


.149 


.178 


•54S 


.049 



POULTR T- CRAFT. 1 1 9 



(5). 

1 part buckwheat middlings contains 
1 part corn meal contains 
1 part wheat bran contains 

3 ounces of mixture contain 

1 ounce of mixture contains 

Nutritive ratio, 1 : 3.S ; potential energy, 97 calories per ounce. 

With corn equal weight, nutritive ratio, 1 : 5.8 ; potential energy, 101 calories 
per ounce. 

(6). 

1 part buckwheat middlings contains 

2 parts corn meal contain 
2 parts wheat bran contain 

5 ounces of mixture contain 

1 ounce of mixture contains 

Nutritive ratio, 1 : 4.4; potential energy, 97.5 calories per ounce. 

With corn equal weights, nutritive ratio, 1 : 6.1 ; potential energy, 101 
calories per ounce. 



Protein 


Carbohydrates 


Fats 


ozs. 


ozs. 


ozs. 


.2S9 


.419 


.071 


.184 


J-374 


.076 


.308 


1.078 


.08 


.781 


2.871 


.227 


.26 


•957 


•075 



(7)- 



1 part buckwheat middlings contains 
3 parts corn meal contain 

2 parts wheat bran contain 

6 ounces of mixture contain 
1 ounce of mixture contains 



Protein 


Carbohydrates 


Fats 


ozs. 


ozs. 


ozs. 


.2S9 


.419 


.071 


.276 


2.o6l 


.114 


.308 


I.07S 


.08 


•873 


3-558 


.265 


•H5 


•593 


.044 



Nutritive ratio, 1 : 4.8; potential energy, 97 calories per ounce. 

With whole corn, nutritive ratio, 1 : 6.3 ; potential energy, 101 calories pei 



(S). 

3 parts dry bread contain 

1 part wheat middlings contains 

2 parts corn meal contain 

6 ounces of mixture contain 
1 ounce of mixture contains 
Nutritive ratio, 1 : 6.6 ; potential energy, 70 calories per ounce. 



Protein 
ozs. 


Carbohydrates 
ozs. 


Fats 
ozs. 


.207 
.156 

.184 


I.326 
.604 

1-374 


-O-I 
.04 
.076 


•547 


3-304 


.126 


.091 


•55 


.02I 



1 20 PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 

159. Hints as to Changing the Values of a Ration, the Bulk 
Remaining the Same : — 

To reduce the potential energy of a ration without materially changing 
its nutritive ratio : — add substances having nearly standard nutritive ratios 
and low potential energies; — for slight l-eductions hard grains, buckwheat, 
oats, chicken corn, etc. ; for considerable reductions, such vegetables as beets, 
turnips, carrots, etc. 

To slightly redztce the potential energy, and make the nutritive ratio 
narrower: — add raw meat, green cut bone, peas, beans, hay (clover, 
alfalfa), having narrow nutritive ratios and low potential energies. 

To considerably reduce the potential energy, and narrow the nutritive 
ratio: — add green vegetables — tops, skim milk, having narrow nutritive 
ratios and very low potential energies. 

To reduce the potential energy while widening the nutritive ratio: — 
add potatoes, or apples ; wide nutritive ratio with low potential energy. 

To increase the potential energy, and narrow the nutritive ratio : — add 
dry animal foods, which have very narrow nutritive ratio with high potential 
energy. 

To increase the potential energy, the nutritive ratio remaining Jixed : — 
add substances rich in both protein and oil, nearly standard nutritive ratios 
with very high potential energies, as flaxseed, ground linseed. 

The above propositions will be found useful guides in varying standard 
rations for special feeding, and also in bringing ill-balanced rations to the 
standard. They are stated with special reference to variety in rations. In 
general feeding the necessary changes can be made by varying the proportions 
of the articles used in a ration, as illustrated in some of the examples in ^[158 ; 
and in general, if the grain ration is nearly standard, and feeding regulated as 
suggested in ^[138, the ration as a whole will be as nearly balanced as it can be. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. Z2i 



CHAPTER IX. 



Egg Production. 

160. Introductory. — The Objective Point in Egg Production. — 

The final object of practical egg production is profit. A producer's profit is 
the difference between the cost of production and his selling price. As the 
difference between two small quantities may be greater than the difference 
between two larger quantities, so the profit on a comparatively small egg 
yield which costs little or nothing, may be greater than the profit on a large 
egg yield secured at considerable expense. Simple as this proposition is, 
and self-evident to everyone who stops to think about it, it needs to be 
emphasized here because of the prevalent mistaken notion that successful, 
profitable egg production depends on making hens lay as many eggs as 
possible in a short time ; and, therefore, every poultry keeper should use all 
means to 'secure an extraordinarily large egg yield. 

As stated in ^[ iS, the bulk of the egg supply in this country comes from 
hens kept under such conditions that the entire receipts for poultry products 
sold are profit,— the produce consumed at home fully paying for the salable 
food given the fowls and the little time spent in looking after them. Most 
of these small flocks of hens are productive only during the spring, summer, 
and early fall, when the conditions generally are favorable to egg production 
from hens kept in a semi-natural state — as they are on most farms and 
village lots. By giving them special care during the remainder of the year 
these flocks could be made almost constantly productive. Whether it would 
pay their keepers to give them the necessary extra care, is a question for 
individual decision. As it costs practically nothing to keep the hens, the loss 
when they are not productive is not an actual dead loss like the money one 
who has to buy food for his hens pays out on feed bills when the hens ought 
to be, and are not, laying. Nearly always those who do not give their fowls 
good care, just taking the egg yield as it comes, would find it more profitable 
to take some trouble, and, perhaps, go to a little extra expense for the sake 
of a possible considerable increase in the output of eggs when eggs are worth 
most ; yet it is a good plan, before making arrangements on account of better 
laying, to reckon up and see whether it will really pay, and how much extra 



i22 POULTRY- CRAFT. 

work and cost the probable better results would justify. Once in a while an 
amateur poultry keeper allows his efforts to make a few hens lay to take time 
and create expense not warranted by the best possible results. 

It is not good advice to every poultry keeper to urge him, by all means, to 
get the largest possible egg yield. Those who make a business of producing 
market eggs must, if the business is to pay its way and make the living, keep 
the flocks producing nearly all the time, and must secure high average yields 
of eggs ; but even for such it is a question whether extraordinarily large egg 
yields will in every case be most profitable. It should be a part of a poultry- 
man's business to determine this point in accordance with his circumstances, 
and he should work always for the most profitable egg yield — large or larger 
as the case may be — remembering that profit is measured in dollars and cents 
when the books are balanced, and remembering, too, that it is often easiest 
to increase profit by reducing expenses. 

Of amateur poultry keepers whose interest centers in the production of eggs, 
there are many whose regular occupations leave them time to give a few hens 
as much care as will keep them laying fairly well under favorable conditions, 
but will not admit of their giving the fowls the careful regular attention 
necessary to secure particularly good results in eggs. There is a limit to 
what any person can do. A workingman, a business man, a professional 
man is not always able to give his hens the little extra attention required for 
a better egg yield : — even a farmer's ability to make the most of every 
opportunity afforded by the possession of land, is limited —though some 
people, not farmers, seem to think otherwise. It is the easiest thing in the 
world to plan all sorts of extra work — for other people. When it comes 
to doing, most people have to choose between one thing and another, and 
leave the less important thing undone, or do it indifferently. The latter 
course is the only one open to very many poultry keepers. Those who are 
wisest get what good they can out of their fowls, and are not disgusted 
because their hens do not lay as well as the best. Poultry keeping that yields 
profit with little trouble deserves consideration as well as that which is made 
profitable by great painstaking. Many who are not able to give hens the best 
care, are still concerned that what time they can give them shall be used to 
do the things it will pay best to do. Many whose fowls need little care want 
to know enough about what good care is to know what does and what does 
not constitute neglect under the conditions to which their fowls are subjected. 
However little time the reader is able to devote to his fowls, he is urged to 
study the chapter as a whole ; for until one has a general knowledge of the 
ways and means of handling laying stock, he cannot determine how to handle 
his stock most satisfactorily. 

To avoid repetitions the text of the chapter is adapted to business poultry- 
men making a specialty of market eggs. Information and suggestions for 
other classes of poultry keepers is placed in parentheses, or given in the foot 
notes. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



12$ 



161. What is a Good Egg Yield ? — There are ordinary, extraordinary, 
and very extraordinary egg yields. 

An ordinary egg yield is from six to ten dozen eggs per hen per year. 
An extraordinary yield is from ten to fourteen dozen per hen. Anything 
over fourteen dozen eggs per hen is a very extraordinary egg yield. 

Ordinary egg yields are obtained from average fowls under the general 
conditions found on most farms, and from small flocks not given special 
attention. Ordinary egg yields from flocks handled specially for heavy 
laying, are also quite common when unfavorable weather or other unavoidable 
contingency depresses the yield. The figures given for extraordinary egg 
yields indicate the normal fluctuations in the product from good stock well 
managed. Skill does not allow it to remain below the lower figure, and can 
rarely sustain it above the higher. Whatever may be said of the desirability 
of reaching an average of two hundred (or more) eggs per year per hen, the 
cold fact is that a twelve dozen per hen flock is an uncommonly good bunch 
of hens. Its record speaks well for its management. 

162. The Early Winter Egg Crop. — Eggs in early winter are usually 
the feature of a large egg yield, though very prolific layers beginning to lay 
in mid-winter and continuing well into the fall can easily reach a high mark. 
In handling hens for eggs only, it is in every way desirable to get the hens 
to laying as early as possible, and take the chances of keeping them laying. 
(Some early winter layers lack staying qualities, and are poor layers). One 
who keeps fowls for eggs ought to do all in his power to get early winter 
eggs, but need not feel unduly discouraged if his best plans and efforts result 
sometimes in failure — total or partial — for here again the cold facts have 
consolation and encouragement for those that fail. The usual condition 
through November and December is that the hens are " getting ready to lay." 
The beginning of the season of good laying is from December 15 to January 
15, and, as has been said, hens beginning then can do highly satisfactory 
work. Beginners in egg farming commonly think that by selection, breeding 
for eggs, and feeding for eggs, they can establish a strain of hens that will 
begin laying as naturally in November as most hens do three or four months 
later. Selection and management help to get stock that can be put in 
condition to begin laying early in the winter; but there are some very potent 
factors working against early winter egg yields. These factors are : tinfavor- 
able weather, which may be expected about two years out of three ; and the 
natural reversionary tendeitcy of hens not to lay in early winter, — this 
tendency is always present, and acts with more or less strength, if given the 
least opportunity. Those two factors can put up a combination against which 
all the good breeding and skill in the world are powerless, unless resort is 
made to hot-house conditions for laying stock — a cure which, in the end, is 
worse than the disease. If this were not so very extraordinary egg yields - 
and good egg yields in November and December would be the rule among 



i2 4 POULTR T- CRA FT. 

skilled poultrymen — not the exception, as they are now. When all is said 
and done, the condition of the egg crop in November and December is just as 
dependent on the weather as the condition of the wheat crop just previous to 
harvest. The weather can make or mar it. 

163. The Factors of a Good Egg Yield are: Good stock, comfortable 
quarters, proper food, sufficient exercise, reasonable cleanliness, favorable 
weather. 

164. Selecting Laying Stock. — The descriptions of fowls in Chapter 
V. indicated some varieties as good layers. It was also stated that hens 
of any variety might be made good layers. Selection of laying stock for 
immediate egg production must take account of stock more strictly than to 
accept general character or possible development. In selecting laying hens 
of unknown individual merit — as must nearly always be done — the only 
reliable guide is the laying capacity of the particular stock from which the 
hens come. Usually this mode of selection gives good average results. To 
select individual good layers by appearance — by points — is impossible. 
Prolificacy is entirely independent of physical structure, (barring some 
deformities), and also independent of temperament. If, as is nearly always 
the case, la.rge eggs are desired, the hens selected should be: — if of a small 
breed, large of their kind ; if of a medium sized breed, medium to large ; for 
it is a physical impossibility for a small hen to be a very prolific layer of 
large eggs ; and, besides, the tendency to lay eggs large out of proportion to 
her size is objectionable in a hen, because rendering her peculiarly subject to 
trouble in extruding her eggs. Moreover, hens small of their kind are usually 
runts, stunted, ill-developed. Medium to small hens of the large breeds lay 
eggs as large as need be ; but hens that are much under size lack the staying 
qualities of better developed birds. 

165. Exercise.* — What Kind ? — Fowls at liberty take exercise princi- 
pally by walking and by scratching. It may be observed that when they 
have a suitable place in which to scratch they pass much of the time there. 
This propensity to scratch, long reckoned the hen's peculiar vice, is turned 
to advantage by those keeping hens in confinement. Without the littered 
scratching-feeding floor, keeping hens healthy and productive in confinement 
is difficult. With this provision for exercise, hens are kept in perfect health, 
at the highest stage of productiveness, — not for a few weeks or months, but 
for two or three years, during which they may never once leave the house 
and small yard attached. Further, better results, in eggs, are obtained from 
hens in confinement than from hens at liberty. On most of the best poultry 
plants the littered scratching floors are considered indispensable.! 

* Note. — House and yard accommodations and foods were considered at length in 
preceding chapters. 

t Note. — For fowls on free range, or in good large yards — in addition to the regular 



POULTR T- CRA FT. 1 25 

166. How Much Exercise? — Poultry keepers, being human, are prone 
to go to extremes. This is as true of plain poultrymen with their methods, 
ideas and theories, as it is of fanciers with their devotion to points of form 
and color, and perfection of development of non-essential features. Having 
tried for years to keep fowls in confinement without adequate provision for 
exercise, poultrymen are now, very generally, compelling too much exercise. 
To keep fowls scratching all day — scratching busily for all the grain they 
get, is carrying a good thing too far. As much exercise as will keep them 
in good condition is needed ; more is superfluous, and, therefore, wasteful. 
Exercise has to be paid for if food is paid for. The amount of exercise 
needed will vary ; it can easily be regulated by watching the condition of the 
hens. At any age a fowl in good condition is plump. A poor thin fowl 
has no reserve force. A fowl in good condition will be kept so if obliged to 
scratch about one-third of the day for one-third of its food. To bring a poor 
fowl up in condition, the proportion of food secured by exercise must be 
reduced. To reduce a fat fowl, compel more exercise — even going so far as 
for a while to oblige the fowl to exercise for all food, and to go hungry as 
long as it will not scratch.* 



167. Exercise for Heavy Fowls. — What exercise suits a Leghorn does 
not suit a Brahma or Cochin. In the first place, the Asiatics do not need as 
much exercise as other varieties, and in just walking about they get much 
more of what exercise they need. Even in small, rather bare yards, they 
keep in pretty good condition without special exercise. As is well known, 
the Asiatics are both the hai*diest of fowls and the best suited to close confine- 
ment. In the next place, scratching is harder work for them than for clean 
legged fowls. With their feathered feet and legs they do not work easily 
in heavy litter; so, while the rule of one-third of a day's work for one-third 
of a day's ration can be applied to Asiatics, it is necessary to so litter the 
floors that the rule will work right. 

fowl-yard — the scratching floor is not absolutely necessary, and may even be superfluous- 
if the hens have access constantly to a barnyard ; but unless there is some other 
convenient sheltered place to which the hens can resort in all weathers, it is best to 
make regular provision for scratching exercise at the hen house. 

* Note. — There need be no fear of injuring a fow r l by this process. People are some- 
times too tender hearted to compel a lazy fowl to work. If the hens miss one or two 
meals rather than work for their food, the owners take pity on them, and feed them as 
usual. This is a common case, and one in which pity needs to be diluted with common 
sense. The truest kindness to an animal is to keep it in such good condition that it will 
feel like working — taking exercise, and when it gets out of such condition to put it in 
condition again at once, — though stringent measures be required. The only case where 
an overfat fowl ought not to be compelled to exercise is w r hen its feet are so sore (scaly 
leg) that it cannot use them. In this not uncommon case the foot disease must be 
treated first, and it will do no harm to diet to reduce fat at the same time. 



i26 POULTR T- CRA FT. 

168. What to Use for Scratching Litter. — Straw and cheap hay, 
make the best scratching litter. Those who grow their own grain, and those 
who can get sheaf grain sometimes feed it unthreshed. Dry leaves, raked up 
in the fall and stored to be used as needed, make good litter, but break up 
■quickly, and are not as easily handled as straw. On a large plant provision 
must be made for a regular supply of litter in quantity. Sometimes the 
rough manure, mostly soiled and broken straw from livery stables, can be 
had for the hauling. It usually contains more than enough grain to pay for 
hauling it. This can be used only in yards* or open sheds. Damp litter 
should never be allowed to remain in the poultry house,— much less be put 
there. A poultryman who can get the old bedding from a race track stable 
should consider himself in luck, for it is nearly all good clean straw, but little 
broken and soiled, and contains much good grain. In many places good 
straw is so cheap that it is the cheapest litter obtainable. When straw costs 
from five to eight dollars a ton it is time for those who use much to look for 
cheaper stuff. When only enough litter for a few pens is needed, baled 
straw, (even at the prices named) may be used. Shavings or other clean 
rubbish — almost anything that conceals the grain, and can be " scratched" 
will do. 

169. To Keep a Scratching Floor in Good Order — the litter must be 
often renewed, and yet be always in nearly the same condition. When litter 
is long and the floor thickly covered with it, it takes fowls too long to scratch 
out their grain — unless a considerable excess (over what is needed at the 
time) of grain is thrown into the litter. Fowls cannot be fed evenly in this 
way. If the litter is short it packs together, and the grain is not hidden when 
thrown on it. Then, unless the grain is raked or forked into the litter, — : a 
tiresome and tedious process, and unnecessary when the floor is managed 
right — it is eaten rapidly, and the fowls take too little exercise. Beginning 
with a clean floor, as much litter should be put in as, when well scattered by 
the fowls, will cover the floor loosely to a depth of four or five inches. As 
soon as this is so broken that it packs, and does not conceal the grain scattered 
on it, a little more should be added, and more, and more at regular intervals, 

— the object being to keep four or five inches of litter of such length that 
grain thrown on it is nearly all hidden at once. After about a month from 
the time the first litter was put in, the coarser stuff on top should be raked to 
one side, and some of the finely broken, dusty stuff next the floor removed. 
Once the floor is filled up right — about an inch of fine — but not too finely 
broken — litter next the floor, and three or four inches of coarse, loose litter 
above it, — it can be kept right by adding long litter once a week and remov- 
ing broken litter about once a month. f 

* Note. — Where there is not too much wet and snowy weather the yard, or a part of 
it, can he used as the exercise-feeding ground. 

t Note. — This will be about right when the floor space is five to six feet per hen. With 



POULTR T- CRA FT. 1 2 7 

170. Cleanliness. — Everything about "a poultry plant should be kept 
reasonably clean — so clean that there are no offensive sights or odors. As a 
rule the droppings should be removed daily. Where the quantity of drop- 
pings to be removed ^ach day is small the common practice is to clean twice 
a week, or once a week, or once a month. This is not a good plan. It does 
no harm to let the droppings boards go uncleaned for a few days, occasionally, 
(at least it does no noticeable measurable harm) but it is not good for fowls 
to sleep nearly always with their heads only a few inches above an accumula- 
tion of their own excreta — and the lapse from daily cleaning ought not to be 
permitted to occur often. It should be the inviolable rule to take up the drop- 
pings daily, — in winter, when the hens are on the roosts for fourteen or fifteen 
hours of the twentv-four ; in damp weather, and whenever some of the drop- 
pings have the peculiarly offensive odor that gives warning of something 
going wrong in the digestive system. After being cleaned, the droppings 
boards should be sprinkled with land plaster, road dust, sifted coal ashes, or 
air-slaked lime to. absorb the liquid manure. * 

The Floor of the roosting room, if not littered, should be raked or swept 
clean once a week or once a fortnight — the period between cleanings being 
regulated by the space per fowl and by the proportion of time the fowls spend 
in the roosting room. Small bare yards should be cared for in the same way. f 

Nests in which straw is used should be cleaned out, and new straw put in 
about once a month — oftener if the straw becomes damp or is fouled. In dry 
and sandy situations, bottomless nest boxes may be used on an earth floor 
without nesting material. These nests need no further care than they get 
when, in cleaning up the floor, they are set to one side, the floor beneath 
them raked smooth, the nest box replaced. The hens hollow the earth in the 
nest to suit themselves. 

greater floor space the litter is not so soon broken ; with less floor space it would be very 
difficult to keep a floor in good condition without doing too much work. 

* Note. — If the droppings are saved to sell to tanneries, absorbents cannot be used on 
the boards. Near large tanneries there are generally men who make a business of col- 
lecting poultry manure. The price varies with the demand and supply, the average 
being about seventy-five cents per barrel. It is an open question with some poultrymen, 
who could use the manure on land, whether, all things considered, it does not pay better 
to use the manure than to sell it. When the hen manure is to be sold for tanning, the 
droppings boards cannot be kept in as nice condition; are more difficult to clean, and 
may be a menace to the health of the fowls. The droppings board saturated with urine 
is unsanitary, and though it may be used without bad consequences for a long time, it is 
unsafe, for unsanitary methods have a way of going back on a poultryman just as he 
begins to be sure that the opposition to them is all nonense. 

tNoTE. — These advices as to the frequency of the periodical cleanings are of course 
suggestive; still they indicate very nearly the limits of time between cleanings when the 
fowls' quarters are kept reasonably clean. A poultryman who works systematically, soon 
arranges a rotation of work which brings the regular cleanings near enough together to 
keep things looking respectable. 



1 28 PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

Feed Troughs should be kept clean. No sloppy food should be put in 
them, nor should water ever be given in the feed trough. If only dry and 
crumbly — non-sticky — foods are given in the troughs, it is little work to keep 
them clean. 

Drinking Vessels should be rinsed as often as the water supply is renewed ; 
and when rinsing with cold water fails to clean effectually, should be well 
scrubbed with scalding water. 

Perfect dryness in a house is essential to the right kind of cleanliness. A 
damp house cannot be kept clean. Dirt that is harmless when dry becomes 
dangerously offensive when moist. 

Whitewash sweetens and purifies a house, besides making the light inside 
much better on dark days. The usual practice is to whitewash once a year. 
Some whitewash twice, or even oftener, but there is certainly something wrong 
with the house or the poultryman if such frequent whitewashings are really 
necessary. Dry, well built houses, kept clean, ought not to need whitewashing 
oftener than once a year ; and that is as often as most poultrymen can afford 
to do it. The most convenient time to whitewash is late in summer or early 
in the fall. Whitewash made after the common method : i. e. — lime slaked 
in boiling water, then thinned to the proper consistency for applying, is gen- 
erally used, and is nearly always applied with a brush, though some use white- 
wash pumps. The disinfecting and purifying qualities of the wash are 
improved by adding a spoonful of crude carbolic acid, diluted in about a pint 
of water, to each pailful of wash. As an insecticide, whitewash has no per- 
manent efficacy; it will kill what lice it reaches when first applied — that is 
all.* 

* Note. — Those who wish to use a wash that will not rub off, will find the following 
recipes good. They have been long in use, and were published in the form in which they 
are given here in the American Poultry Yard: 

(i). "Slake in boiling water one-half bushel of lime, keeping it just fairly covered 
with water during the process. Strain it to remove the sediment that will fall to the 
bottom, and add to it a peck of salt dissolved in warm water; three pounds of ground rice 
boiled in water to a thin paste ; one-half pound powdered Spanish whiting, and a pound 
of clear glue dissolved in warm water. Mix the different ingredients thoroughly, and let 
the mixture stand for several days. When ready to use, apply it hot. If a less quantity 
is desired, use the same proportions." 

(2). "A good whitewash for use upon outside work may be prepared as follows: 
Slake in boiling water one-half bushel of lime, and strain as before. Add to this two 
pounds of sulphate of zinc and one pound of salt dissolved in water. If any color but 
white is desired, add about three pounds of the desired coloring matter, such as painters 
use in preparing their paints. Yellow ochre will make a beautiful cream color, and 
browns, reds, and various shades of green are equally easily obtained." 

[The coloring matter used for whitewash should be dry; colors mixed in oil cannot be 
used. The quantity of color heeded would have to be ascertained by trial. The wash in 
the pail will have a much deeper, darker shade than when dry; so that to find out just 
what the color is it is necessary to allow a little ot it to dry.] 

(3). " Another excellent wash, lasting almost as well as ordinary paint, may be pre- 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. x 29 

171. Fall Management of Laying Stock. — The established poultry- 
man's year begins in the fall. The precise date is not a matter of consequence. 
Many like to place it at October 1st. It is really governed in individual cases 
by circumstances. It is not always possible to have everything in readiness 
for winter as early in the fall as one would wish. Every effort should, how- 
ever, be made to have the laying stock in winter quarters — and not over- 
crowded — before the first cold rain storms or sharp cool nights come. The 
time for these varies with the latitude, and sometimes they are postponed 
until quite late ; but it is the best policy to be prepared for them. 

By early September pullets intended for early winter layers should be well 
grown, and beginning to show signs of approaching maturity. Unless there 
is room and to spare, all under-sized and poorly developed pullets should have 
been sold. [Late hatched pullets that will come to laying in mid-winter, it 
will pay to keep, if the stock of early birds is short, and there is abundance of 
room ; otherwise, the sooner they are sold, after reaching a marketable age, 
the better. It never will pay to over-crowd stock that might lay early]. The 
hens reserved to keep through a second winter, should be about half through 
their moult ; all others should have been disposed of. * 

Both hens and pullets should be well fed. Whole corn may be used now 
at night quite as freely as in the coldest winter weather. It is a mistake to 
feed moulting hens short, and a mistake to feed them a too highly nitrogenous 
ration. Hens moult better on a carbonaceous ration, quite a fattening one, 
than on a narrower one, and will lay better afterwards. Moulting hens need 
nitrogenous matter for feathers ; they also need additional heat producing food 
to keep them warm while growing new feathers. It is better that they should 
be fat than poor, and safer to keep them a trifle over-fat, rather than barely 
in good condition. If the weather continues fine, most good layers (non-sitters 
sometimes excepted) will, if well fed with an ordinary fattening ration, lay 
every third or fourth day while moulting. The pullets can stand high feeding, 
because only the most advanced are full-feathered. Few are full grown. In 

pared for outside work as follows : Slake in boiling water one-half bushel of lime. 
Strain so as to remove all sediment. Add two pounds of sulphate of zinc and one pound 
of common salt, and one-half pound of whiting thoroughly dissolved. Mix to a proper 
consistency with skimmed milk, and apply hot. If white is not desired add enough 
coloring matter to produce the desired shade." 

* Note. — Right here comes up a point in management which is of particular interest 
to farmers and to others who keep fair sized single flocks of poultry. It is a common 
practice with such, when selling poultry, or killing it for the table, to select the best and 
most salable birds, considering only the question of their immediate use, and not regard- 
ing at all the effect of this practice on the flock. The result is that nearly always the 
flock that is to furnish winter eggs — if winter eggs are obtained — is made up of the 
" rag, tag and bob-tail " of several seasons. To reverse this method of selection, and 
keep only the best for layers, would do as much as any other one thing to improve the 
general average of egg production. This is one of the ways in which those who have 
little time to give their fowls can secure an increase of profit without extra labor. . 



1 30 POULTR T- CRA FT. 

the earliest period of laying, a pullet is usually making growth of bone, 
muscle and feathers, and producing eggs at the same time. The eggs are of 
necessity small, and it is a good plan to postpone laying until the bird is well 
developed. This can be done by shifting the pullets frequently from pen to 
pen. 

As the mean temperature of the atmosphere falls lower and lower, more and 
more of the food consumed goes to keep up the heat of the body. The mash 
should be a rich one, heavy in corn meal and meat — and fed warm. Corn 
can be fed quite freely, and provision made for a constant and liberal supply 
of cut bone or meat scraps. For feeding at this time no better vegetable than 
cabbage can be found, and split and damaged cabbage can be had at this 
season for the hauling, or for a merely nominal price. Sound cabbages are 
often very cheap, and if one who cannot grow them himself is prepared to 
buy what he needs for the winter now, cabbages may be about as cheap a 
green food as can be had ; bought later, they will probably cost several times 
the fall price. It would, of course, be possible to keep the fowls comfortable 
in cool weather by giving less heating food, and closing the houses up more 
at night; but that system tends to keep fowls soft; while, as long as the 
weather is not too cold, heating food and a cool house harden, while keeping 
them comfortable. 

Now as long as the weather continues fine and quite uniform, though slowly 
growing colder, both hens and pullets will do so well that the poultry man 
will begin to make estimates of what the egg yield will be by Thanksgiving 
Day, at the present rate of iitcrease. 

Then possibly there comes a sudden fall in the temperature — a fall of 50 
to 6o° Fahrenheit in a few hours, is not unusual at this season — and a change 
of 8o° may occur inside of twenty-four hours. The demand of the body for heat 
is enormously increased. If the poultryman can now keep his fowls warm 
enough so that there is no sudden check to egg production, all is well. If the 
cold snap is of short duration, everything goes on as before. If the weather 
remains permanently cooler, one has only to take better care of the hens for a 
few days until they become accustomed to the change : — as healthy hens do 
very quickly; but if the poultryman fails to make such provision as is in his 
power to counteract the effect of the change in the weather; or, if the fall in 
temperature is so great as to check laying in spite of all that he can do, the 
effects of the change do not pass away with the return to settled warmer 
weather, and if changes follow each other rapidly, numerous slight shocks 
have sometimes a worse effect than one extreme shock. In many cases the 
shock to the system of the hen does not end with the stoppage of egg produc- 
tion. Consider what laying is — what an egg is. Consider how any shock to 
an animal organism acts upon the reproductive system, and this effect in turn 
reacts upon the whole system. Similar instances are numerous in other lines 
of animal life. When a change of weather causes a hen to stop laying, there 
will be no more eggs laid until the system has had time to recuperate. The 
time needed is long or short, as the shock to the system was more or less 



POULTRY-CRAFT. i 3 r 

severe, and varies in individual cases — some hens being much more suscepti- 
ble to change than others, and some of those easily affected recuperating 
quickly, while others recover tone and vigor but slowly. 

The foregoing statements give the problem of fall and early winter tgg 
production quite fully, showing how important is skillful management, yet 
how impotent against extremely unfavorable changeable weather at this season. 
Occasionally it happens that the weather is continuously mild, or uniformly 
cool, then cold. In either case it is comparatively easy to get and keep hens 
laying. There is a great deal of chance in this matter of fall and early winter 
egg production; — there are many ifs; yet the man who intelligently does 
what man can do toward getting the early eggs, has by far the best chance. 
More than that, when good management misses the best, it catches the next 
best. Though it may fail to get eggs in November and December, it makes 
January eggs practically a certainty ; while poor management in the fall is 
apt to result in no eggs before March. 

172. Anticipating Weather Changes. — Some Little Things that 
Count. — Poultry keeping is essentially an occupation made up of trivialities. 
In poultry keeping it is the little things that count. In working for early 
winter eggs, some little things may have big results, determining whether it is 
to be eggs, or no eggs. The wide-awake poultryman is weather-wise. He 
anticipates the weather changes. He sees, or feels them coming, and takes 
measures against them. A keen, cutting, chilling wind, springing up on a 
warm day in the fall, will chill the hens through and through before they take 
•shelter, * and will, of course, make an open house as cold as out-doors. Such 
cold storms, as also cold rain storms, an observant person can anticipate early 
enough to get the fowls into the house, and close doors and windows. This is 
a little trouble at first, but it pays. The house closed up with the fowls in it, 
is full of warm air which cools gradually. The fowls hardly feel the change. 
But there must be no coddling — no shutting up fowls for slight changes, no 
keeping them in the house when robust well fed fowls should be comfortable 
out-doors/ Once a severe change has occurred, and what could be done to 
mitigate its effects has been done ; things should proceed in the regular routine. 
On sharp frosty mornings, fowls may be kept in until they have had a meal, 
but should never be confined late when the cold is not severe enough to nip 
their combs. They should have the opportunity to go out-doors. Those that 
will not use it are good to kill. They are the ones easily affected by cold, and 
most subject to diseases emanating from colds. If the day is only raw and 
bleak, the open scratching shed, or the house with windows open, gives as 
much shelter as healthy fowls need. If it is stormy, without being very cold, 
* Note. — Contrary to a common belief, hens, like other animals, most children, and 
some people, have not the instinct of doing what is best to do in any given circumstances. 
They learn by experience. After they have found out which is the most comfortable 
place to go to when a cold storm comes up, they will go there every time. It is easier 
to teach them what to do than to leave them to learn it for themselves — easier, and it 
<comes cheaper. 



132 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



it is best to leave the small doors to the yards open, letting the hens run out 
as they choose — which will be in every lull of the storm. There is nothing 
more objectionable in the management of poultry than shutting them into close 
houses when it is not extremely cold ; it makes and keeps them soft, and after 
a time they become more susceptible to moderate changes than rugged fowls 
are to severe changes. There is a vast difference between coddling fowls and 
taking such ordinary precautions to keep them healthy and comfortable as 
sensible persons learn to take for their own personal welfare. 

173. Late Culling of the Laying Stock. — It is a good plan, as inti- 
mated in the preceding paragraph, to watch the flocks closely during the fall, 
and cull out all birds easily affected by inclement weather. These should be 
put in condition to market for poultry. It is not worth while to nurse them 
along in the hope that they will eventually become profitable layers. The 
chances are against that ; their presence in the flock is a standing invitation 
to diseases which, once having gained a foothold in a flock, are apt to become 
epidemic. Their room is worth more than the prospect of profit from them. 

174. Distempers and Colds, Epidemic. — Changeable weather and 
continuous damp weather often make colds epidemic in the early fall. A 
common cause of colds and distempers is closing the houses too tight at night. 
Fowls that have been roosting in open sheds, or in the open air, are almost 
sure to take cold when moved into a warm, close house. When colds 
become thus epidemic, simple remedies should be used at once. A good 
condition powder, fed regularly in the daily mash, is often effective. 
Common hard soap, dissolved in water to the consistency of soft soap, a 
tablespoonful to a gallon of water, will clear the nostrils and throat, and also^ 
act as a mild purgative. Indeed, this hard soap remedy alone is one of the 
very best that can be used in mild forms of distemper. Colds may be 
partially prevented, — the system fortified against them, — by feeding onions 
liberally ; also by feeding in the mash red peppers, dried, chopped fine. If 
these can be obtained they are to be preferred to ground red pepper 
(capsictim). It is of first importance to learn to what cause the colds are 
due, and, if possible, to remove the cause. (Often colds are due to prevent- 
able causes) . Treatment cannot be thoroughly effective while the cause remains. 

175. What to Do When it Snows. — No matter how good the in-door 
accommodations for the hens, it is best to get them out doors for at least a 
little while on every day when that is not utterly impossible. Except in 
extreme northern sections it is not very difficult when snow comes, to keep 
it cleared away from a strip six to eight or ten feet wide along the south side 
of each house. Where snow does not lie long there is a temptation to wait for 
the sun to take it off. Don't indulge the temptation. The less fowls are 
necessarily kept confined in winter the more urgent it is that they shall not be 
shut in longer than is needful. They feel and are affected more by restraint 
when it is of rare, than when it is of common occurrence. There is no need 



POULTR T- CRAFT. 



l 33 



of being over-careful to prevent laying hens walking on and eating snow. It 
is often said that either of these things will stop laying. To remain long 
standing on snow, or on wet frozen ground either, undoubtedly has that 
effect ; so, apparently, has eating snow under some circumstances. Healthy 
fowls that have dry comfortable quarters to which they go at will, are not 
injured in the least by being on snow for a little while occasionally. Fowls 
that can have water to drink when they want it will not hurt themselves 
eating snow. Indeed, fowls provided with- water do not voluntarily eat much 
snow except when it is thawing, wet ; — then they seem to prefer it to water. 

1 76. As the Days Grow Short — the old hens are getting well through 
their moult; the early pullets are completely feathered, full grown. The 
food eaten now goes to maintenance, warmth, and eggs ; and, with the full 
coat of feathers on, the heat of the body is better retained. A given quantity 
of fuel food will go further in a given atmospheric temperature now than it 
did earlier ; and if the weather is fine and. warm in November, the food needs 
close watching ; for it is very likely to prove that the hens need less food and 
less heating food now than they did early in the fall. Now, too, the days are 
growing so short that it begins to be difficult to get in three meals a day, even 
if the noon meal is a light one, with intervals between meals long enough to 
keep the fowls in good appetite. It would seem that fowls need to be up 
and about for a while befoi-e they are ready to eat a breakfast. If at all well 
fed at night they rarely eat a hearty meal until some little time after sunrise. 
If the hens will not eat heartily soon after sunrise, the evening feed should be 
reduced, little by little, until they do. A good way to feed in the shoit days 
is — when the mash is fed in the morning — to give all they will eat clean of 
a clover or vegetable mash, and scatter millet, or other small grain or broken 
grain, where they can get it by scratching at any time through the day; then 
about three o'clock in the afternoon give a feed of wheat, oats, barley, cracked 
corn, — any one, or a mixture — in litter, feeding a little light; at dusk give 
whole corn to hens that will leave the roost to get it. As to the quantity of 
corn to be given, learn to judge that by comparing the appearance of the crop 
at night and the appetite for mash next morning. When the mash is fed in 
the evening and vegetables at noon, it is easier to regulate three meals a day. 
Whether two or three meals are given, the feeder should learn to so regulate 
the quantity given at each meal that the hens will be ready and waiting for 
the next. If this is not done, hens soon go "off their feed," though not 
over-fed. The trouble usually has its origin in allowing the fowls to get too 
hungry before the evening meal, making them so greedy that when given an 
opportunity to eat rapidly and heartily they swallow more than they can 
comfortably digest. By being observant and careful, one soon acquires a 
knack of feeding about right for quantity, and finds it a much simpler matter 
than the amount of explanation necessary to make the need of cautious feeding 
clear would indicate. 



i 3 4 POULTRT- CRA FT. 

\11 . Importance of Closely Observing the Physical Condition of 
Hens. — In feeding for eggs it maybe noticed, that, as in some breeds the 
tendency is to convert surplus food into eggs, and in some to convert a surplus 
into fat, and as similar differing tendencies are observed in different hens of 
the same breed, so the same hen will show at one time a tendency to fatten, 
and at another a tendency to turn all surplus into eggs — and this altogether 
apart from the influence of external conditions. When one function gets, as 
it were, the upper hand of the others, it seems to have power to appropriate a 
lion's share of the surplus food taken into the system. This matter requires 
watching, and sometimes makes it necessary to reassort a stock, putting hens 
of similar tendencies together, that they may be given required special treat- 
ment. One of the secrets, perhaps the secret, of getting big egg yields from 
fowls of the large breeds, is to get the hens in such condition, and laying, 
that they acquire a certain momentum of egg production — then feed heavily. 
For this one needs to be much among his fowls, watching them closely, and 
handling them often. The feathers make it difficult to accurately judge a 
hen's condition by observation. In the case of large fowls the difficulty is 
increased by the length and looseness of the plumage. Very docile hens can 
be picked up at any time ; others, not so easily approached, but still not 
wild, may be caught at the feed trough, by lifting with the hand under the 
breast, without being at all alarmed. A close examination is not needed; all 
that is necessary is to get hold of the fowl in such a way that the weight rests 
easily on the hand, and the fingers learn by touch the condition of the flesh. 
Hens that would be too much disturbed by being caught by daylight, should 
be handled on the roosts at night. Beginners generally need to watch their 
liens' condition more closely than old breeders, because the old breeder's stock 
as a whole has become habituated to his system of handling, and by the 
inevitable process of natural selection fowls which do not do well under his 
system have been largely weeded out. 

178. Gentleness in Handling Laying Hens Important. — Careless 
and rough handling of laying hens cause many bad breaks in egg yields. 
Occasions are constantly arising in the poultry yard when one needs to 
exercise all his powers of self-restraint to keep from doing things of -which he 
will afterwards be ashamed. Hens can be very aggravating, and cannot be 
coerced with gentle force or mildly corrected as most domestic animals are. 
A threatening movement, though carried no further, will often put every hen 
in a pen in a bad state of fright ; in a long continuous house the panic runs 
like wildfire from pen to pen. A disturbance of any kind measurably affects 
the egg yield. The poultry keeper who is most a novice knows that a dog or 
other unfamiliar animal, or a bevy of visitors is very objectionable near the 
quarters of laying hens. Not all poultry keepers know that they themselves 
often unknowingly cause bad disturbances. They see the disturbance, but 
are unable to account for it. To abruptly enter a pen, to run past it, to go 



POULTRY-CRAFT. 135 

Into it wearing clothes different from those usually worn, or carrying ari 
unfamiliar object, will often send panic through a whole flock. Changing 
.the quarters of laying heits is a thing to be avoided, if possible, unless it can 
be done without making a disturbance. The best way to move hens short 
distances is by driving. If this is done carefully, egg production may not be 
affected at all. If the hens must be carried, they should be very carefully 
handled, moved only at night ; not caught or carried by the feet. Moving 
-short distances, they can be carried in the hands, one at a time ; or under the 
.arums, two at a time. When this mode of handling is too tedious, the transfer 
should be made in coops. With gentle handling the bad effects of moving 
are diminished. During the natural laying season laying hens are less 
influenced by disturbances than at other times. 

179. In Coldest Weather. — Extreme cold weather is no bar to good 
egg production if the hens come to it without having been suddenly 
checked. The weather condition favorable to winter laying is uniformity. 
It is often said that winter eggs depend on the poultryman's submitting his 
hens to counterfeit spi'ing conditions. This is but partly true. Hens that are 
comfortably housed can be made to lay well in almost any kind of weather or 
climate, provided fluctuations in temperature and humidity are not too great 
or too numerous. In extreme cold weather a very carbonaceous ration may 
be the best laying ration. The most highly carbonaceous ration that a fowl 
can digest will fail to keep up the heat of the body and leave sufficient surplus 
for a goodly number of eggs. A warm house helps, but in addition, (to 
prevent unnecessary expenditure of food) the hens must be prevented from 
chilling themselves with icy water and ice cold grain. Warm water should 
be given. It ought not to be always warm. The hens want some cold water. 
The point is, to make sure that they cannot, when very thirsty, drink freely of 
water so cold that it chills them to the marrow. If the water is warm when 
put into the drinking pans that is all that is necessary. For fowls with crests 
and beards, and for males with long wattles, drinking fountains which prevent 
the head furnishings from getting wet, should be used. In cold weather wet 
damp crests are almost certain to cause roup. In a fairly comfortable house 
the wattles of hens and of short wattled males are rarely frost bitten ; but the 
long wattles of Leghorn and Minorca males may be nipped while wet, when, 
in the same degree of cold, they would not be injured if dry. When there is 
danger of water freezing in the pans at night, the pans should be emptied 
every evening ; otherwise valuable time may have to be given to removing the 
ice from them in the morning. It is of little use to warm small grain that is 
to be fed in litter ; it remains warm only a few minutes, and the hens cannot 
eat it fast enough to be chilled by it, anyway. Grain that can be eaten 
quickly, it is an advantage to warm. 

180. Ventilating in Cold Weather. — When it is so cold that the 
poultry house has to be closed during all but six or seven of the twenty-four 



136 POUL TR T- CRAFT. 

hours, ventilation requires close attention. Moisture rapidly collects on walls 
and ceilings. Damp walls are good conductors of heat, and too quickly 
equalize inside and outside temperatures. To keep the walls oh'v there must 
be good circulation of air through the house for some hours daily. This 
applies to clear cold as well as to wet cold weather. A house facing south 
is likely to become much too warm through the middle of the day if closed 
tight on a clear day, no matter how cold. Whenever the weather permits — 
that is, whenever a storm would not sweep in at open doors and windows — 
the poultry house should be well opened up, especially through the middle of 
the day. The windows of a house fronting south should be open as much 
and as long as the house can be kept comfortable with them open. They 
should be both opened and closed gradually ; not opened wide all at once 
after the house has become over- warm, and closed tight all at once when it 
has turned cold after sundown. A house with two rows of pens, facing east 
and west, and with large doors at the north and south ends of the passage, 
and small doors in the east and west sides, is nicely aired by leaving the. two 
large doors open; or by opening all the small doors, or one large door and 
the small doors on one side. The direction and force of the wind have to be 
considered. 

A good general rule for cold weather ventilation, is to open the house as 
much as can be done, and still leave it at a comfortable temperature for the 
person doing tJie work in it. 

181. In Warm Winter Weather, great caution needs to be observed in 
feeding. If corn has been fed generously the quantity given should be much 
reduced. Most cases of liver disease date from a warm spell in winter. . 
Heavy feeding and highly carbonaceous rations are continued when, for the 
time, the hens need a narrower ration and much less food. In warm winter 
weather mashes should have the proportions of hay or vegetables and of bran 
somewhat increased ; oats should be substituted for a part of the corn fed. It 
is the more needful to watch this point, because the bad effects of injudicious 
feeding at such seasons are rarely discerned, either in the condition of the 
fowl or in the egg yield, until disease is in an advanced stage. Most cases of 
liver disease do not develop outward symptoms for some weeks, or even 
months. 

182. Care of Laying Stock in the Spring. — In the spring hens need 
and will stand very heavy feeding ; though it takes less of the food to keep 
them warm, it takes considerably more for egg material. If fed no more 
than they were in the winter, most hens quickly " lay themselves poor." The 
novice is not apt to discover this state of affairs until his hens begin to stop 
laying, exhausted, and not likely to again be reliably profitable layers. Many 
hens which should have been good layers for several years, are spoiled in this 
way ; and it is the best hens that are most likely to suffer. Whoever will keep 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 137 

such hens over and watch their later performance, will find that hens which 
have once gone badly out of condition are usually uncertain layers afterwards. 
The principal cause of all this trouble is, that, having worried over feeding 
problems all winter, the poultry keeper thinks when spring comes and the 
hens are laying well, that he has the feeding " down fine," when, in fact, the 
hens are laying well in spite of poor management. In the spring every hen 
that can lay will lay ; fat hens lay themselves into good condition ; sick hens 
lav themselves to death. The fact that a hen is laying, is not by any means 
a reliable indication that she is in perfect health and condition. A heavy egg 
yield in the spring is not particularly desirable. If the hens have laid well 
through the winter, they should be given a rest in anticipation of making 
them do as well as possible through the summer, summer eggs being more 
profitable than spring eggs. If the egg farmer rears his own laying stock, 
(as nearly all do), it will pay him to set as many of his hens as go broodv in 
March and April, thus giving each a rest of about a month (if they only 
hatch the chicks) when eggs are cheapest. With the non-sitting breeds this 
course is out of the question. There will also be in nearly every large stock 
of laying hens of the sitting varieties some heavy layers that will not go broody 
until quite worn out with egg production. * 

Such hens can sometimes be induced to sit by shutting them on a dark nest 
full of eggs. Hens that persist in laying heavily should be given the very 
best of care, and every effort made to keep them in tip-top condition ; they 
will rest later while moulting. Too often it happens at this season that the 
poultryman's time and thought are so fully occupied with the care of the 
young stock and plans for the coming year, that his laying hens are more or 
less neglected. 

183. Summer Management of Laying Stock. — With the first hot 
days of summer hens that have gone out of condition, and hens not bred for 
continuous laying, are apt to quit. Nearly all the hens will show a dispo- 
sition to stop laying, but judicious care and feeding will keep those that are 
in condition, and have the staying qualities, laying fairly well all through the 

* Note. — Some say that, if fed properly, a hen is not exhausted by long continued 
heavy laying. As well say that a man, if fed properly, cannot be overworked. Good 
feeding is a factor of good laying, but good laying is a drain on the vigor of the best 
nourished hens ; they show it in the quality of the eggs, they show it in their late hatched 
chicks, and, nearly always, show it in their appearance. Food, though of the best, and 
abundant, is not rest — and cannot be a substitute for rest. Every animal, every part of 
an animal, every animal function, requires periods of complete or partial rest. Is it not 
absurd to suppose that the most delicate of all animal functions can be kept constantly 
working at high pressure? Is it not more than absurd, in the face of the fact, patent 
everywhere in nature, that an overworked reproductive system leads quickly to decay and 
degeneration, to assume that perpetual motion is successfully demonstrated in the hen 
bred for eggs and properly fed? Why, even machines of wood and iron need rest, and 
wear out with less actual work if they do not get it. Every analogy confirms the experi- 
ence of the mass of practical poultrymen. 



1 3S POULTRY- CRAFT. 

heated term ; extra good laying except in a few rare individual cases is 
not to be expected. The hens need to be kept cool. The houses should be 
opened wide enough to be comfortably cool at night. There should be cool, 
shady loafing places in which they would pass the hottest hours of the day. 
Their exercise should be early in the morning and late in the evening. It is 
a good plan to feed grain mornings and evenings, and the mash at noon. 
Once a day — about the middle of the afternoon is the best time, — they 
should have all the green grass or vegetable tops they will eat. On exces- 
sively hot days, green stuff maybe fed to advantage, twice — just after the 
morning feed, and just before the evening feed. They should have all the 
cold water they want, and may also be given all the milk they will drink. 
Milk is good at all times, but is most appreciated in warm weather. It does 
not wholly take the place of water. Fowls would not suffer much from 
thirst if given milk and no water ; but they want water, and it should always 
be accessible, whether they have milk or not. If one has plenty of milk, and 
can give it constantly, the best way is to have two drinking pans in each 
pen, one for water, one for milk — and let the fowls drink as they please. 

When the weather is extremely warm, the mash for fowls in confinement 
should contain but little corn meal, and no whole corn should be given. For 
ordinary summer weather, the mash need not be much varied from that 
used in winter, and the whole grain ration need differ only in the amount of 
corn fed. If given the opportunity to eat vegetables freely, the hens will 
balance the xa.\\ox\for comfort, not_/br eggs. Indeed, unless fed vegetables, 
as suggested, when they are not very hungry, the hens will eat a much larger 
proportion of bulky food than is consistent with good laying. * 

184. When Hens Stop Laying Too Early in Summer. — There are 
always some hens, sometimes a large proportion of a flock, that cannot 
be kept laying through the summer when handled in the usual way; these it 
is not profitable to keep in idleness. (Too many poultry keepers do keep 
them along until fall). They should be culled out of the general flock, 
separated and fed differently ; — the object being to put them in market con- 
dition. They should be fed a heavy laying ration, with little exercise. On 
this treatment many of them will begin laying again. Those which do not 
should be marketed as soon as fit, and those which lay for only a few weeks 
should also go to market, as they stop laying again. Those which show a 
disposition to keep right on laying should be given exercise to keep them in 
condition. An egg farmer should never sell a laying hen unless he has more 
eggs than he needs, or has another to take her place ; as long as the hen 

* Note. — Those whose hens are kept on a good grass range, would do well to watch 
this point. If the hens will not stop to eat grain in the morning, but go foraging, they 
may be let alone as long as they lay well. If they are not laying as well as they ought to 
be, it is worth while to try the experiment of keeping them in the yard attached to the 
poultry house until they have eaten a light feed of grain, which will often give them just 
the solid food they need to bring the egg yield where it should be. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



[ 39 



lays, it pays to keep her. The first choice of hens to be kept over should be 
from those which began laying earliest, and were kept in laying condition 
with the least trouble, and for the longest time. If there are not as many of 
these as are needed, some of the hens that under special treatment laid through 
the summer should be reserved. * 

185. Old Hens as Layers. — In connection with the question of how 
many and which old hens to keep over for laying, comes up the moot question,, 
whether- hens or pullets are better for egg production. Some authorities, 
advise selling off all old hens, claiming that pullets are better layers, audi 
therefore more profitable. Others say they get as good results in number ©£ 
eggs from hens as from pullets, and the eggs of the hens are more uniformly 
of good size. There is much reason to think that these diverse results are 
not due entirely or primarily to age, but are according to treatment and 
selection for long lived layers. In truth, there is not much reason for think- 
ing anything else. The fact that many poultry keepers do regularly get as 
good egg yields from hens in the second, third, and sometimes fourth years, 
as in the first, and as good as from good laying pullets kept beside them, is 
proof positive that old hens are not necessarily poorer layers than pullets, and 
that their capacity for producing eggs need not be impaired by the work of 
their first season. It is a general truth that old hens have a greater tendency 
to fatten. (A poultryman who understands his business can easily regulate 
that). In most cases where those who get good results from pullets do not 
get good results from hens, the trouble seem to be in such things as : breeding 
largely from immatm-e stock, starting pullets to laying too early, allowing 
them to lay themselves out of condition, and not feeding heavily enough 
while moulting. Many poultry keepers are very careless about the old hens 
while moulting, though careful enough at other times ; and some are too care- 
ful to feed nothing over and above what is needed to grow feathers. A better 
way than to make a low age limit when selecting laying stock, is, to make it 
a rule to keep through the moult all hens that began laying early, and after 
laying for eight or nine months are still in good condition, and to keep in 
addition to these, as many of the next best (according to the same standard of 
value) hens as are needed to keep the plant stocked to its full capacity with 
productive hens. A hen which lays an egg a week while moulting pays for 
her food, and most people find it easier to care for, say, a hundred moulting 
hens than to rear a hundred good pullets. A good layer that continues in good 
condition, is worth taking chances on until she is three or four years old. 
Time enough to dispose of her when she is known to be unprofitable. 

* Note. — Many amateur poultry keepers whose hens stop laying in early summer, sell 
them off for whatever they will bring. This is poor policy. Four times ou'. of five the 
hens are in poor condition, and the price obtained is the lowest going. Were the hens 
put in market condition before being offered for sale, those sold would bring a much 
better price; while those which resumed laying would give a profit in eggs while being 
kept in condition to market when they ceased laying. 



1 40 PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

186. About Broody Hens. — When hens are kept principally for egg 
production, frequent and persistent broodiness is a bad fault, and should be 
culled and bred out of the stock. Broodiness at long intervals and . easily 
broken up, is rather an advantage than otherwise, for it gives the hens 
occasional short complete rests from laying. It is noticeable that hens 
of the non-sitting varieties lay less while moulting than hens of sitting 
varieties; the latter if well fed, are apt to lay (a from 20% to 40% yield) 
right through the ' moult. The non-sitters take one long rest ; the sitters 
several short rests. If it is desired to keep the hens laying as steadily as 
possible, using none for incubation, they can be most easily broken of broodi- 
ness and most quickly brought to laying again by confining them with a 
reserve male in a pen from which the nests have been removed. On a large 
plant, one, two, or more pens are, during the spring and summer, needed tor 
hens undergoing the process of breaking up. The broody hens should be 
well fed. To break up broodiness promptly, and bring them to laying with- 
out delay, two objects must be attained, viz. : the hens must forget about 
incubating; they must be kept in good condition. Confinement in coops, as 
described in ^[^7? is? on the whole, slower and less effective than penning 
•with other broody hens and a male. In the pens the hens can be got to lay- 
ing again in four or five days, sometimes, and it rarely takes longer than ten 
days, unless they are badly out of condition. This method is not always 
practicable in small yards. Starving to break up broodiness, is a cruel remedy 
— not more effective than simple removal from nests, and certain to postpone 
much longer the resumption of laying. 



187. The Cause of Broodiness. — Sick Hens Going Broody. — The 

condition of the hen is sometimes supposed to determine the time of broodi- 
ness — even to cause broodiness, — some asserting that whether hens are 
sitters or non-sitters, is merely a question of diet. Many think a fat hen goes 
broody. It is quite a common practice to feed grain heavily to induce broodi- 
ness. This method fails as often as it succeeds. There is nothing in the 
"fat hen theory" of broodiness further than that, if a hen has the sitting 
instinct well developed, she will, in the breeding season, go broody when she 
stops laying, whether she stops because : — too fat, too poor, or sick. Com- 
plaints of sitting hens dying on their nests are numerous every season. 
Sometimes a poultry keeper reports his sitting hens as nearly all dying 
mysteriously during the period of incubation. Such hens are mostly sick 
when set ; though broody, their actions are so different from those of healthy 
broody hens, that after two or three experiences with them a poultry keeper 
who is as observant as he ought to be, will not make the error of setting 
them when they ought to go to the hospital. Broodiness is hereditary and 
constitutional. If a hen comes of non-sitting stock, heavy feeding will force 
egg production or will fatten — it will not cause broodiness. 



POULTR T- CRA FT. 1 4 1 

188. About Eggs. — Very Small Eggs are often laid regularly by 
hens so fat internally that there is not room in the egg passage for a normal 
sized egg to form. The remedies are : reduced food, and exercise. 

Soft Shelled and Thin Shelled Eggs are due, sometimes, to a lack of 
lime in the food, sometimes to the hens being over-fat, but, perhaps, most 
often to inability to retain the egg until fully developed, its extrusion being 
premature, and due to the same causes as the dropping, at one time, of 
several eggs in different stages of development. 

When Several Eggs are Dropped at the Same Time, it is because 
the hen is temporarily weak and unable to retain the weight of eggs she is 
carrying. The best treatment for such cases is to put the hen alone in a 
warm roomy coop, where she can take a little gentle exercise, and feed light 
— to retard egg production, — especially avoiding stimulants which act on the 
ovaries. A hen in general good condition recovers quickly from such a 
mishap (miscarriage). With the regular ration, she may lay a perfect egg 
the second day after dropping three or four partially formed ones. It is better 
that she should not lay so soon again. By postponing laying the risk of a 
second attack is diminished. A second attack is apt to have more serious 
consequences than the first. The hen should be kept away from the male for 
several weeks, as the attentions and weight of the male retard her complete 
recovery, even when not the direct cause of a second accident. The first 
causes of the weakness which leads to the dropping of several eggs at once, 
are obscure; (they might not be, if hens could talk). The accident happens 
to hens of all ages, and in all conditions. It is often preceded by bowel 
doubles, which cause extreme weakness ; and there is little doubt that in 
some cases it results from abuse by the male or by other hens. Frights and 
injuries of which the keeper knows nothing, are other possible causes. 

Double Eggs are generally attributed to over-fat hens. Clearly a mistake. 
Fat hens sometimes lay double eggs; so do hens in good condition, and hens 
in rather poor condition. A double egg is a twin egg. The tendency to pro- 
duce twins, as observed in human beings and in farm stock other than fowls,, 
seems to be hereditary. It is not known that twins are more often produced 
by fat than by lean mothers. 

Misshapen Eggs. — Some hens never lay an egg with a good shell. Such 
hens should be killed ; their eggs spoil the appearance of a lot, and ai - e, 
besides, most apt to be broken. When hens which have been laying perfectly 
formed eggs lay eggs with badly formed shells, the cause may be : for a single 
egg, a slight accident or fright ; for a number of badly formed eggs laid con- 
secutively, the commonest cause is rheumatism. 

189. Egg Eating. — Its Cause, Prevention and Cure. — A soft or thin 
shelled egg broken in the nest, is the usual cause of egg eating. From eating 
broken eggs hens soon learn to break eggs. The vice is communicated to all. 



143 POULTRT- CRA FT. 

the hens in a flock in short order. Dark nests, as shown in Figs. 13, 16, 35, 
and 36, are the best preventive of egg eating. Once the vice becomes fixed in 
a flock, such dark nests in an ordinary well lighted pen do not stop it, for 
enough light finds its way into the nests to enable the hens to see to eat the 
eggs, if they are very eager to do so. To effect a cure, the pen itself must be 
so dark that the hens can just see to make their way to the nests. Then the 
nests are so dark that the hens cannot possibly see well enough to break and 
eat the eggs. The point is to prevent the hens breaking eggs until they have 
had time to forget about it. Fowls have short memories. From one to two 
weeks of complete prevention usualty effects a lasting cure. Some poultrymen 
report having cured egg eating by giving the hens china nest eggs to pick at 
until they gave up in disgust. This may work sometimes ; — it has been tried 
and failed. The pitch dark nest is a sure cure. 

190. Condition and Food, and the Quality of Eggs. — Hens that are 
fat without being over-fat lay the best eggs. Generally the eggs of corn fed 
hens are richer than those of hens fed principally on other grains. 

Thin, Watery Eggs come from using too much sloppy food, or vegetable 
food, and from hens in poor condition generally, no matter what the kind or 
quality of the food. 

Pale Yolks result from lack of green food, and of fat, oil. It is rarely 
possible to have anything like as good color in the yolks of winter eggs as in 
eggs laid in May and June ; but by using hay cured green, and by feeding 
corn quite freely, much better color is obtained than when root vegetables 
only are fed, and corn almost excluded from the ration. 

191. Nest Eggs. — The use of nest eggs for laying hens is unnecessary. 
One may as well save the few dollars — or few cents — they would cost. 
Hens in confinement have no opportunity to hide their nests. Most of them 
go to the nests provided for them, and when hens show partiality for a 
particular nest, the use of nest eggs in all the nests will rarely prevent 
their crowding to the nest they favor. Hens which have opportunity and the 
disposition to hide their nests, will do so though the nests provided for them 
be filled with nest eggs. 

192. Practical Every Day Use of an Egg Record. — In every pen of 
laying hens there should be tacked up a sheet, ruled one way for the months, 
and the other for the days of the month, on which to record the number of 
eggs laid each day. A record of diet and weather is valuable, but that can 
be kept on one sheet for many pens. The egg record sheet in each pen 
furnishes a good guide in feeding ; is almost indispensable when one person 
does the feeding and another collects the eggs, and is most useful always, 
for memories are treacherous. The egg record shows the exact nature and 
extent of fluctuations in the egg yield, and shows at once when something is 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



H3 



going wrong. In using the egg record as an index of the condition of the 
flock, the feeder should keep in mind that a falling off in the egg yield for one 
or two days may be due to the mere coincidence of the "off days" of an 
unusually large number of hens ; but, after a shortage which cannot be 
accounted for by change of weather or a serious disturbance in the flock, on 
two successive days, he should begin to handle the hens to exactly ascertain 
their conditions. Nine times out of ten he will find that he has been feeding 
too Ho-ht. 




144 p0 UL TR r ~ CRA FT - 



CHAPTER X. 



Principles of Breeding, — Selection and Care of 
Breeding Stock. 

193. The Law of Inheritance. — The principles of breeding being 
based on one universal law, the law of inheritance, the transmission of 
qualities in generation, a correct appreciation of this law is essential to a 
right understanding of the principles of poultry breeding. In its operation 
the law of inheritance shows, always, two phases which appear to result from 
conflicting laws. Thus while fowls of the same pure breed produce offspring 
unmistakably like themselves, the offspring are never exactly like either parent, 
or like each other, so that it is commonly said that there are two laws: (i) 
The law of heredity ; of family, or race, likeness; and (2) The law of 
variation, of individual diversity, and it is considered that "heredity" and 
" variation " are visible effects of opposing forces, the first working to preserve 
a race as it has existed, the second to produce change ; and that these forces, 
especially that which controls variation, work in some mysterious capricious 
way which the breeder cannot fathom. 

There are not two laws. There is but one : — the law of inheritance. 
" Heredity " is the inheritance of like qualities ; " variation " the inheritance of 
unlike qualities,* and it is as strictly in accordance with the law of inheritance 
that the unlike characteristics, the individual differences, should pass from 
generation to generation with changing kaleidoscopic effects as that the like 
qualities should be transmitted practically unchanged. 

194. One Law Explains All the Phenomena of Reproduction. — 

Congenital, or inherited, variations may be divided into three classes: (1) 
Slight variations, differences in degree of like qualities; (2) Considerable 
variations — either extraordinary development or degeneracy of a race quality, 
or, a new quality which is at once recognized as resulting from a union of 
ancestral qualities; (3) Variations, which constitute new qualities not 
traceable to known ancestors, or to supposedly possible combinations. It was 
only necessary to make such a classification of congenital variations to show 

*Note. — In this generalization acquired variations must be excepted. Acquired 
variations which are directly due to external causes are the initial variations, the begin- 
nings of differences between individuals, and are inheritable. 



POULTR T- CRA FT. 1 45 

that all variations except the small number coming in class 3, are due to 
inheritance ; for it is a matter of common information that offspring do not 
inherit equally from both parents ; that offspring of the same parents do not 
inherit alike; and that inheritance is not the transmittance of qualities from 
one generation to the next in a lump, — but goes back, " takes back " through 
several of the nearest generations, and in less degree to more remote genera- 
tions. Now if the law of inheritance accounts for likenesses, slight differences, 
and a part of the greater differences, including some unusual, new, qualities, it 
is to be expected that it can account for so-called " spontaneous " variations, 
which are simply variations of which the causes are not immediately apparent. 
Further, the law of inheritance requires that such phenomena of hereditv as 
these spontaneous variations shall occur from time to time, just as imperatively 
as it requires that they shall take place only at long intervals. There is no 
place in this work for an extended demonstration of this proposition. It can, 
perhaps, be made sufficiently clear in a few words. 

Some observed facts of heredity, observations of the number of generations 
required to establish, "breed in," a desirable trait, or to "breed out" an 
undesirable one, give the general rule : — A descendant irtherits one-fourth of 
the total of his qualities from each parent, one-sixteenth front each gra?id- 
parent, one-sixty-fourth fro77i each great-grand-parent, one-two hundred 
and fifty-sixth from each great-great-gra?id parent. To put it another 
way : an individual, a fowl, may inherit an appreciable fraction of its qualities 
from each and every one of thirty ancestors, representing possibly the extremes 
of divergence from the breed type in a dozen different respects. The number 
of inheritable qualities is very great.. The number of possible variations due 
to inheritance is enormous, practically infinite. The mathematical rule based 
on a few facts of inheritance teaches that slight variations should be very 
numerous, considerable variations more rare, and that at long intervals 
remarkable variations due to a fortuitous combination of two obsolete qualities, 
or of known and obsolete qualities, should occur. And since the law of 
" inheritance, of the transmission of qualities, can explain the transmission of 
unlike as well as of like qualities, it is neither sensible nor scientific to 
attribute a few phenomena to some other mysterious cause. The breeders' 
maxim, kt Like begets like" is literally true, and applies to differences as well 
as to resemblances. Every principle of breeding must conform to the law 
of inheritance. Every phenomenon of reproduction can be explained in 
accordance with the law, when all the the facts are known. 

195. What the Law of Inheritance Is, and What It Means to the 
Poultry Breeder. — The law of inheritance is a natural law; it simply 
expresses the relation between descendant and ancestors. It does not, and 
cannot show how heredity can be so controlled as to effect the direct trans- 
mission of such particular qualities as the breeder esteems, and the immediate 
suppression of all others. As this is precisely what the poultry breeder would 
like to learn how to do, of what value is such a law to him? Just this : the 



1 46 POULTR T- CRA FT. 

demonstration of one law of inheritance to account for all the phenomena of 
likeness and unlikeness in fowls of the same blood and breeding should show 
him that he can have virtually complete control of his stock, if only he will 
breed in conformity to principles proved by the law of inheritance, rejecting 
such so-called principles as will not stand the test. The right interpretation 
of the facts of inheritance should show him that the uncertainty of results in 
breeding, which he so often deplores, is not due to a conflict of mysterious 
forces, but to his own avoidable mistakes. The law of inheritance shows that 
by continued selection of the specimens most alike, the number and extent of 
possible differences in the offspring are constantly reduced. There is nothing 
new in this teaching. Successful breeders have followed it for years. But 
that there is one law, and only one, which applies to all the phenomena of 
reproduction, is the thing which, more than all others, the great mass of those 
who are trying to breed poultry need to know. When once they get firm hold 
of that fact, and form the habit of testing their methods by it, they -will discard 
some fallacies that now stand in the way of better general progress in the 
improvement of domestic poultry. 

196. Selection. — Inheritance perpetuates undesirable, as "well as desir- 
able, qualities. Its variations are as apt to be toward deterioration as toward 
improvement. Among animals in a state of nature, natural selection, the 
" survival of the fittest," constantly operates to maintain the old features, and 
preserve and establish the new ones most beneficial to the race. In the 
breeding of domestic animals natural selection necessarily plays a part, but 
the chief factor is artificial selection, the " separation of the choicest," in 
accordance with the interests or whims of the breeder. As an artificial 
standard seeks to secure exact similarity in many details, or, very superior 
excellence in one or more qualities, it is only by the most rigid selection of 
the individuals allowed to propagate their kind that a high stage of improve- 
ment can be reached and maintained. Rigid, severe selection is the key to 
success in poultry breeding. If a breeder desires uniformity in his stock, the 
breeding birds must be as nearly alike as can be had, and bred from like birds 
for many generations. If he wishes to secure high excellence in a particular 
quality, he must breed consecutively from the individuals in which that quality 
is best developed — without detri?nent to other qualities.* 

* Note. — -While a breeder should always select the best, he must expect that if a best 
bird is so much better than the type in any particular that it is markedly unlike the type, 
its progeny will not (unless it happens to be strongly prepotent with regard to the feature 
which constitutes its excellence) show an equal excellence. On the contrary, it is in 
accordance with the law that only a small proportion should do so, and that an equal 
number should be as much worse than the poorest progeny of the mediocre stock as the 
best are better than their best. So that, on the whole, the immediate progeny of 
phenomenally good birds may be disappointing. But by breeding from the best again 
and again, the marked advance made in any feature by an individual can be established 
as a race feature, — provided always that it can exist without detriment to other qualities. 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 



147 



Good food and good care are not less important than good stock, but come 
later in order of time ; and to justify their use one must give them to good 
stock. Food and care, though of the best, cannot make a good layer of a hen 
that is constitutionally a poor layer ; or put a round full breast on the 
descendant of a line of flat breasted fowls ; or clean color on the offspring of 
a race weak in color. It is in the failure to carefully select the specimens used 
in the breeding pens that most breeders, — not merely most breeders of Stand- 
ard fowls, but most breeders, most people who hatch and rear fowls, — fail 
to make their work pay. 

197. The Common Mistake. — One who keeps a dozen hens in his 
back yard and rears annually sixty to seventy chicks, selects a good male bird, 
perhaps paying a good price for him, then hatches from the eggs of the entire 
flock. His hens are a fair average of their kind, not uniform either in appear- 
ance or quality, some fairly good, some poor. That is about as such flocks 
run. Accoi"ding to the common theory, as the best hens lay the most eggs, 
and throw the strongest chicks, the greater proportion of the chicks reared 
will be from those best hens. That theory takes for granted several things 
that may not be so. The result desired is not impossible; it is improbable, 
if the eggs are hatched, as they usually are in such cases, by hens. See how 
it works. One point of improvement is to be prolificacy. The best and 
earliest layers are not always the first to go broody, but they are very likely to 
be. They are set on eggs from the flock. If any of their own eggs happen 
to be in the lot, such eggs are the poorest they had laid. These hens incubate 
for three weeks, remain with the broods for six or eight weeks more. So it 
happens that nearly all the chicks reared are from the poorer hens. Is it any 
wonder that results in grading up scrub stock and improving stock of poor 
quality are not always satisfactory? Selection implies separation. Separa- 
tion is the object of selection. If two or three or more of the best of a dozen 
hens are separated from the flock, the poultry keeper can know that he is 
breeding from those hens, and no others. 

198. The Farmer's Mistake. — It is a very usual practice for a farmer 
having a flock of, say, one hundred hens, when buying blood to improve his 
stock, to buy six or eight males of the dollar-and-a-half to two-dollar kind to 
run with the flock ; then use for hatching eggs collected from the flock. The 
chances are against any considerable number of the few hundreds of chicks 
reared being from the best hens. If twelve or fifteen of the best had been 
separated from the general flock for the breeding season, and mated with a 
male worth two of the kind used, the eggs from these hens only could have 
been set, and more improvement made in the stock in one year than by follow- 
ing the hit and miss method for three. 

199. The Breeder's Mistake. — Many breeders of pure bred stock, who 
breed from a single pen, will use in that pen anything they may happen to 



1 48 PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

have in the way of a hen, that is not so poor that for very shame they cannot 
use her, trusting to a good male to stamp his quality on all the offspring. 
Thus they lumber their premises with a lot of cull chicks, which over-crowd 
the better ones, and prevent the few good ones from developing into what 
they might become if given more room and better care. Others, who breed 
from several pens, instead of mating best males to best females, make com- 
promise matings * in order to get more and larger breeding yards ; sacrificing 
quality to quantity at every point. This is not good breeding, neither is it 
good business policy. Good breeders breed only from the best of their good 
birds. 

200. One Law for Fancier and Farmer. — The wisdom of close cull- 
ing in breeding fancy stock is generally admitted, but many amateurs still 
insist that for them such close culling is impracticable. Most practical breeders, 
also, do not cull as closely as they should. One who has not much room will 
say that it is not worth while to take such pains for a few chicks. He ought, 
rather, 'to think it most important that none of his limited space be wasted on 
poor chicks. If he has room to rear chicks, he certainly has room to separate 
as many of his best hens as are needed to lay the eggs from which to hatch the 
chicks. One who must rear a large number of chicks will say that if he culls 
as closely as he knows he ought to, he will not have hens enough to lay the 
eggs he needs for hatching. That by no means follows. What is more likely 
to happen is, that with better average breeding stock, less crowded and better 
cared for, he will rear more and better chicks, though not as many eggs are 
set. 

201. The Points to be Considered in Selecting, are: Pedigree, 
Appearance, Performance, Condition. 

202. Pedigree. — Good fowls from poor stock are worth little as breeders. 
Good fowls of unknown ancestry are to be used with extreme caution. Good 
fowls of known good ancestry are valuable in the breeding yard in proportion 
as their ancestry was continuously uniformly good, when measured by the 
standard by which the progeny are to be ^measured. The mere fact that a 
fowl is "pedigreed," the names, or band numbers of its ancestors known, is 
worth nothing at all in breeding. The important thing to know is, how like 
they were to the desired type, and in what they differed. 

203. Appearance includes Shape, Size and Weight, and Color. — Typ- 
ical shapes of pure bred fowls are shown in the illustrations in Chapter V. In 
selecting for breeding, the breed type should be followed closely ; departures 
from it should be made only for the purpose of strengthening a feature in 

* Note. — Every mating is to some extent a compromise, a balancing of merits and 
defects. The reference here, however, is to the practice of using birds that for the good 
of the breed should go to the pot, in extreme matings which produce many birds that 
look all right, but are of little value as breeders. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



149 



which specimens of the breed are generally weak. As a rule, deformities are 
to be avoided. It will occasionally happen that a deformed fowl is of such 
uncommon general or special excellence that the breeder will profit more by 
using it, breeding its excellence into and its defects out of his stock, than by 
rejecting it. These cases are rare, and before using a disqualified bird a 
novice should make sure that it really has the excellence he supposes it to 
have. In any case, it should be used in a special mating, and not allowed to 
communicate its defects to the general stock. A male and female having a 
deformity in common should not be mated together ; nor should fowls having 
the same defect, not amounting to a deformity, be mated together. Shape is 
universally recognized as more important than color, yet in judging and in 
breeding, shape is too often sacrificed to color. The trouble is that color 
defects are, to most people, more conspicuous than shape defects. Many 
cannot distinguish between the different types of form ; but nearly everyone 
can appreciate a color fault when once attention has been called to it. Besides 
this, there is a mercenary side to the question. When rigid selection is made 
for both shape and color, the breeder finds only one good bird where, if shape 
defects are overlooked he would have two or three. 

Fowls lacking in size and weight should be rejected as breeders ; or, at 
most, used with great caution. Lack of size is a common fault in all breeds. 
Of the thoroughbred fowls for which the Standard has weight requirements, 
the greater number produced never attain Standard weight when in breeding 
condition. Some breeders advocate breeding from " medium sized " * males 
and large females, claiming that the female gives size and shape, the male 
color ; or that the female gives size and practical qualities, the male shape and 
color. t Unless the size of the large females is objectionable, to make such 
matings a system is bad business. It will take only a few experiments in 
crossing males of small breeds on females of large breeds to convince anyone 
that the greater part of the progeny will come intermediate in size, a few 
being as small as the sire, a few as large as the dam. The prevalence of the 
intermediate size may not at first be noticeable in the offspring of small males 
and large females of the same breed, but a second medium sized male mated 
to large pullets from the first will get so few large chicks of either sex that 
the breeder will begin to know where he is " at." 

* Note. — With some few medium-sized means, of Standard weight or a Utile more ; 
but more often the "medium sized" males are below Standard weight, and very much 
smaller than the best developed males of their kind ; — and in speaking of best developed 
males, excessively large, coarse sfiecime?zs are barred. 

T Note. — In the face of facts accessible to anyone who opens his eyes to see them, 
such broad generalizations are absurd. The most frequently recurring case of the com- 
monest form (offspring resembling one parent more than the other) of direct heredity, is 
that daughters resemble the sire, sons the dam. This is known as "cross heredity.' 
Though the most common case, it is not by any means a rule, for cases where sons most 
closely resemble the sire, daughters the dam, and cases where offspring of both sexes 
inherit quite equally from sire and dam, are numerous. 



1 50 PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

Excessively large males should be discarded. They are rarely good in 
shape, and not infrequently the excessive growth of bone and muscle is 
correlative with defective generative organs. In all breeds having Standard 
weight, best results, as far as results depend on size, are obtained by using 
birds whose weight, in good breeding condition equals or slightly exceeds the 
requirements of the Standard. In the smaller breeds most satisfactory results 
are obtained by using the largest birds having typical shape. 

In selecting breeding fowls of cross bred, grade, or mongrel stock, selection 
for uniformity in shape, size, and color is advisable, the type used in each 
quality being that most desirable for the breeder's immediate purpose. In 
breeding thoroughbred fowls uniformity of color is imperative. Color 
matings for Standard fowls are described in ^[215 — 236. ■ 

204. Performance. — Under this head prolificacy is considered from a 
little different point of view than in treating of egg production. A hen may 
be a great layer and a poor breeder. The points most valued in a breeder are : 
( 1 ) Ability to produce numerously vigorous offspring of the general type ; 
and (2) Prepotency, breeding power, ability to stamp individual qualities on 
offspring. The combination of marked prepotency and great excellence is 
rare. It would, perhaps, be discovered oftener if more accurate records of 
matings and results were kept. The distinction between prepotency and 
prolificacy should be observed. In breeding high class stock a very prepotent 
fowl may be valuable as a breeder, though not specially prolific ; but generally 
birds low in prolificacy cannot be profitably used. 

205. Condition. — Fowls selected for breeding should have strong con- 
stitutions, should be in perfect health when put in the breeding pen, and 
should never have been seriously sick or badly out of condition. Fowls 
which as chicks were puny or backward, though finally nursed into good 
condition, are not desirable breeders ; nor are those which though never 
seriously sick, have been marked as subject to slight disorders. Condition 
of the breeders is of greatest importance. Hundreds of thousands of chicks 
are hatched, weak in constitution, predisposed to certain disorders, destined 
to die prematurely in spite of all that can be done for them. 

206. Selecting Breeders to Produce Laying Stock. — The male 
should be from good laying stock : the females selected for individual 
performance in egg production, and when possible, according to the laying 
qualities of their daughters. One who is much among his fowls, observing 
them closely, can form a pretty good idea of the relative laying capacities of 
the hens. If the hens cannot be watched quite closely, trap nests should be 
used. In selecting young hens for breeders, pedigree counts most, for the 
performance observed can only be for a few weeks or months prior to the 
time of mating. In selecting hens, judgment can take account of a year's 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 1 5 1 

work, a season's breeding, and a short period of the laying of pullets from 
them. For this reason, if for no other, hens are more desirable breeders than 
pullets. Shape and size of eggs laid by each hen must be considei'ed, and 
sometimes color of eggs also. The laying-breeding hen should be well built, 
symmetrical. Defective shape may be tolerated in an individual, but ought 
not to be perpetuated. 

In breeding from extraordinary layers, particular attention should be given 
to condition. To the statement in ^"196, that a breeder should select those 
specimens in which desired qualities were best developed, the proviso, 
ki without detriment to other qualities," was added because artificial standards 
sometimes require things which are incompatible ; but more particularly 
because in breeding practical poultry the development of laying or table 
qualities is easily brought to the point where further development is at the 
expense of other qualities, and thus detrimental to the stock. Chicks from 
eggs laid in the first two months of a mature hen's laying, are, on the whole, 
better than those from eggs produced when the hen has been laying continu- 
ously for three or four months. The best layers should be tried as breeders 
if they are in good condition at the season. There are some big layers that 
are uncommonly good breeders; but in general, a hen that lays a hundred 
and fifty eggs a year is worth more as a breeder than one which lays several 
dozen more. 

207. Selecting Breeders to Produce Market Poultry. — In selecting 
stock for this purpose shape is most important. Figs. 47-54 show good types 
for broilers and small roasters. Figs, 56-62, 73, 74, show good types for 
general market fowls. In selecting from common stock preference should be 
given to specimens approaching one of the good meat types. Stock for 
breeding broilers should be quick maturing, early laying, and generally good 
laying stock. Quick growth is an important point in broiler production. 
Only hens that lay early and well can be depended on to produce market 
poultry, roasters as well as broilers, for the earliest demand. The early 
roaster is, as a rule, just a broiler grown older. For large roasters, slow 
maturing stock is best, as the meat of the young males remains soft much 
longer. A point of much importance is how the fowl fattens. Fowls which 
are prone to put on internal fat do not make good breeders. 

208. Age of Breeding Stock. — Fowls should be at their best their 
second season, at the beginning of which they are -generally twenty to twenty- 
four months old. If they are not then in tip-top condition, more "fit" for 
breeding than in the previous year, the breeder should look for something 
wrong in his method of handling breeding stock. A hen coming two years 
old, if not forced as a pullet, and if properly handled between seasons, will 
lay as well the second year as the first, and lay larger eggs, which will hatch 
stronger and better chicks. A cock of the same age that has not been over- 



152 PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

worked as a cockerel, and neglected between seasons, that is, as he should be, 
in his prime, will get better chicks than it was possible for him to get as a 
cockerel. The mating of males and females of this age will, other things 
equal, give better results than any other age or combination of ages. Well 
grown young fowls make better breeders than two-year-olds not in prime 
condition. A method favored by many breeders is to mate a cock bird to 
pullets, and a cockerel to hens. Generally these matings give better results 
than matings of cockerels and pullets not as good as matings of two-year-olds. 
Fowls in their third season will often get as good chicks at the height of the 
breeding season as they did the previous year. Old fowls, however, are not 
reliable breeders early in the season. 

209. How Many Hens to a Male? — The general rule is: — for 
Asiatics, 6 to io; for Americans, 8 to 12; for Mediterraneans, 10 to 1^. A 
great deal depends on the male, and whether his attentions are well 
distributed. Sometimes good results in fertility are obtained from a male 
with twenty, twenty-five or thirty hens ; but the quality of the chicks from 
such matings is rarely what it should be. Even in using the smaller numbers 
suggested in the rule, it is better to keep low rather than high. Small 
matings of one, two, or several hens with a male, are sometimes desired. 
Some males worry the hens when confined with so small a number. In that 
case the usual method is to introduce hens, as many as needed to keep the 
male peaceable, of a breed which lays eggs easily distinguished from those of 
the breeding hens. When more hens are kept together than one male can 
take care of, various expedients are resorted to to prevent males interfering 
with each other, or exhausting their power. When two males are used, the 
commonest practice is to run them with the hens on alternate days, though 
some make the periods several days or a week ; and some think they get 
better results by using one male as long as he keeps in condition, then 
substituting one held in reserve for that purpose. A favorite method with 
larger flocks is to use three males, giving each two days work and a day's rest 
alternately. It is, perhaps, needless to say that these methods are not used 
by good breeders for good stock. For market poultry and laying stock, they 
answer ; but unless the hens are all good of their kind, it is better to reduce 
their number to as many as can be kept with one male. Sometimes a male 
is given too many or too few hens, for the purpose of influencing the 
transmission of the qualities of sire and dam, it being known that the parent 
in best condition is most prepotent. This practice is a questionable one, for 
it really amounts to deliberately putting one side or the other out of condition. 

210. Can Sex be Controlled? — No one has yet succeeded in demon- 
strating that it can — not in fowls. The numerous recipes given do not prove 
at all reliable. 

211. Contamination. — It is sometimes asserted that a hen once served 



POULTR T- CRA FT. 1 5 3 

by a male of another variety cannot be depended on to breed true. It is only 
in rare instances that eggs laid ten days after contamination hatch chicks 
which show in any way the influence of the foreign male. Few, perhaps 
none, of the reported cases of the influence of a male of another breed 
persisting for months or years, rest on indisputable evidence. The same 
thing may be said of alleged cases of " mental impressions." 

212. Introducing New Blood. — Inbreeding. — It is commonly believed 
by poultrymen that to maintain the vigor of a stock new blood must be 
frequently introduced. Many go so far as to say that any inbreeding at all is 
bad ; that it is from the outset the beginning of deterioration. If a man 
inbreeds, and his stock is weak, the weakness is invariably attributed to 
inbreeding. Most of the evils, assigned to inbreeding are not due to 
inbreeding, but to careless selection. There is no evidence that the breeding 
of males and females of the nearest kin necessarily initiates degeneracy. 
There is abundant evidence that with proper selection for stamina, and to 
avoid common defects, very close inbreeding can be followed for a long time 
without injuring the stock. There is also abundant evidence that breeding 
unrelated fowls without careful attention to vigor, and avoidance of common 
defects, is at once attended with precisely the same results as breeding fowls 
of near kin under the same conditions. The prejudice (for it is nothing else) 
against inbreeding, is one of the serious drawbacks to general improvement 
of poultry. A breeder who does not confine his matings within narrow blood 
lines slips back about as fast as he crawls forward. Nearly every new 
breeder wastes a number of years ti'ying to breed good stock without 
inbreeding. Practical poultrymen will notably improve their stock by 
inbreeding, then throw away results by bringing in new blood because of the 
fear that they may carry inbreeding too far. In time nearly all breeders come 
to admit that inbreeding is absolutely necessary (in breeding fancy fowls) in 
color breeding, yet few can be found who do not think it unquestionably bad 
for the practical breeder. As has already been said, there is not one law of 
breeding for one class of breeders and another for another class. If 
inbreeding is necessary to fix superiority in color, it is necessary to fix it in 
shape ; if it is necessary to fix it in shape, it is necessary to fix superior laying 
capacity or rapid growth, or vigor. Inbreeding is necessary hecause there 
cannot be intelligent breeding without inbreeding. One who does not breed 
within close lines cannot know his stock as far back as he must know it if it 
is to be mated with reasonable assurance that the matings will produce the 
desired results. To secure uniformity inbreeding is necessary, because the 
number of inheritable differences must be kept as low as possible, and this 
can only be done by close inbreeding. The vigor of a flock is sustained not 
by regularly introducing new blood, but by selecting breeding birds for vigor. 
Vigorous birds generally beget vigorous offspring ; weak birds weak offspring, 
whether akin or not. 



1 54 PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

Let it be fully understood that to breed from birds because they are related, 
without making selection for points desired, is as wrong as to refuse to mate 
related birds. The whole matter is well put, in a nutshell, by a writer on 
cattle breeding when he advises to ignore the fact of relationship altogether, 
and breed from the best individuals obtainable. Then the question for the 
poultry breeder is whether he can get, or can afford to get, better birds than 
he has. By breeding only from vigorous selected stock, and observing the 
rule not to mate fowls having bad defects in common, mating together only 
fowls which in individual merit and in pedigree — whether akin or no kin — 
are what they should be for the purpose of the mating, a breeder may be sure 
that he is avoiding the mistakes of those who miss it when they inbreed, and 
also of those who miss it when they do not. 

213. Cross Breeding. — To breed crosses regularly, is not good policy 
for any poultry keeper. // is not a rule that crosses are hardier or better 
layers than fowls of pure blood. Some crosses give good results, others do 
not. As to comparing all crosses with all pure bred fowls : the breeder of 
crosses generally, very soon leaves them for thoroughbreds. In crossing, the 
breeds selected should have such unlike qualities as when combined to form 
an intermediate type, would give the result sought. The cross of two breeds 
having a bad fault in common, should never be made. Crossing to give stock 
vigor, is not better than using vigorous blood of the same variety ; it is not as 
good. Crossing two weak stocks in the hope of producing a strong one, w 7 ill 
give satisfactory results in very very few instances. Some good crosses are 
White, Brown, or Buff, Leghorn and Light Brahma, or Buff, or White, Cochin ; 
Brown Leghorn and Pailridge Cochin ; White Plymouth Rock, or Wyandotte 
and Light Brahma ; Golden, or Buff, Wyandotte and Buff Cochin ; Indian 
Game and Light Brahma, or Buff, or Partridge, Cochin, or Plymouth Rock, 
or Wyandotte : all these give yellow skin and legs. Good crosses, not right 
in color for " yellow " poultry, are Indian Game and Langshan ; Black 
Minorca, or Houdan, and Langshan ; Houdan and Brahma. In crossing birds 
differing much in size, males of the small breeds and females of the large 
should be used. In color, cross bred pullets most often resemble the sire, 
cockerels the dam ; though the likeness is not very complete, and often quite 
different colors result. In shape and size, the progeny of both sexes is mostly 
intermediate. Occasionally the cross offspring are larger than either parent. 

214. Mating Standard Fowls. — With a copy of the Standard and an 
illustration of his variety before him, a novice who has studied the remarks 
on selecting for shape (^[203), will not need to have the points of shape 
desired explicitly set forth in the directions for mating each variety. The 
matings as described in the following paragraphs are mostly color matings ; 
but a few points on shape which need special mention are introduced, and in 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 155 

a few cases representing quite different types of fowls, fuller suggestions 
about shape are given. The particulars of shape to which attention is called 
are those requiring most attention. The beginner usually needs to be advised 
where to look for the weak points in his stock ; for some of the most trouble- 
some are overlooked unless attention is especially directed to them. Above 
all else, a novice needs to guard against being carried away by admiration 
for uncommon excellence in any one particular. It is the all around good 
birds that make the best breeders. In most of the varieties good Standard 
birds of both sexes are produced from a mating of Standard birds ; but, in a 
few, distinctly different matings are required to produce first class specimens 
of each sex. In many varieties for which a single, Standard mating is used, 
it is sometimes necessary to use birds rather strong in color to restore color 
lost in breeding continuously from Standard birds. 

It must be kept in mind that often the Standard allows considerable lati- 
tude in the matter of color, and in such cases it may happen that a breeder 
who follows the Standard as he interprets it, will fail to produce stock that 
comes well up to the Standard as interpreted by other breeders and the judges. 
Thus, in breeding Light Brahmas, one might breed pullets with wing flights 
(primaries) nearly half white, but when he comes to show or sell his birds, 
he would find that such wings are considered faulty, nearly black primaries 
being preferred. And, in breeding buff varieties, one might get what he 
considered the correct shade, only to find quite a different color in vogue. 
The only way a breeder can learn what the public wants, is by keeping in 
touch with other breeders of his variety, visiting accessible shows, and exam- 
ining all reputed good specimens he has opportunity to handle. In mating 
birds of varieties for which both double and single matings are used, the 
system by which the stock was produced should be followed. 

215. Mating Barred Plymouth Rocks. — A. C. Hawkins' rules 
(adapted from the American Plymouth Rock Club Catalogue). 

"To produce both sexes of Standard color from the same mating, has been the study 
of thousands of breeders for the last thirty years. That some fine specimens have been 
produced by the single mating system, is true ; but, unquestionably, more than ninety 
per cent of the winning Barred Plymouth Rocks in the country for the last twenty years, 
have been the product of the special mating system ; and it is no doubt the surest and 
safest method of producing the highest scoring specimens of the breed. 

"To Produce Standard Females, use in the breeding pen only females of the 
highest type of color and form, with the qualities desired in the female progeny; or in 
other words, the very highest scoring specimens that have no (bad) defects. To these 
females mate a male bird of medium light color, and evenly barred all over, including 
wings and tail ; and whose dam and sire's dam were of the same high standard in form 
and color desired in the female progeny. 

" The male should have the blood in his veins of the same general character as that in 
the females he is mated with. He should have a deep full breast, broad concave back, 
small well serrated comb, orange yellow legs, — all important and desirable qualities in 
his produce. 



156 POULTRY- CRA FT. 

" Such a mating can be depended on to produce ninety-five per cent of first class 
breeding and exhibition females. The males from it will be of the same color as their 
sire — not exhibition birds, but useful for breeding choice females. 

" Do not use males with very light necks and tails in these pullet breeding pens, as 
these defects will be reproduced in the progeny in pullets with splashy light ?iecks, and 
blurred poorly barred tails. 

"Pullets of even color, and distinctly barred all over, are what is desired; and with 
careful selection of the breeding stock, it is not difficult to get them. Such pullets are 
rarely, if ever, produced from Standard colored males — and, if they look well, are not 
reliable breeders. 

" To Produce Medium Dark Blue Barred Males as Reojjired by the Standard : 
— put at the head of the breeding pen the very finest exhibition male of Standard color, 
even serrated comb, broad concave back, deep full breast, small spreading tail, orange 
yellow legs, evenly barred all over and to the skin. Do not use a male with any serious 
defect, even if he scores high. 

" With this male mate females of the same line of breeding as himself; not necessarily 
akin to him, but females whose sire and dam's sire were high scoring Standard colored 
birds. These females should be medium dark in color, not smutty ; but evenly barred all 
over and to the skin, with good combs, forms and legs. From such a mating ninety-five 
per cent finely colored males suitable for breeding and exhibition can be produced. The 
females will be of the same general character and color as their dams, too dark for 
exhibition, but useful for breeding choice males. 

" By this special mating system, and by careful selection of the breeding stock, the 
Barred Plymouth Rock is sure to improve each season, and the longer they are bred in 
line the more perfectly will their Standard qualities be brought out." 

216. Mating Brown Leghorns. — A. C. Smith's rules (specially 
contributed for this book) . 

The methods and means that must be employed to mate Brown Leghorns successfully 
for exhibition specimens of both sexes, vary with the style of bird the breeder desires to 
produce. Most breeders use what is known as the double mating system — that is, a 
separate mating for the production of each sex. Some breeders use the single mating 
system, depending upon one mating to produce exhibition males and females. But the 
growing tendency in this, as in almost all varieties of fancy fowl, is toward the double 
system. The single mating may be used in this variety with far more success than in 
most others. 

While it can hardly be said that each system has its advantages, it can be said that 
each system has its place. The best system is certainly the one that will produce the 
greater per cent of exhibition birds. Which system will do that, depends upon the style 
of male and female described in the Standard extant. The present demand is for what 
may, in general, be described as a dark male and light female. Such birds are, from a 
breeder's standpoint, direct opposites. Far better results may be obtained in seeking 
these diametrically opposite types by making a distinct mating for each sex. 

The Double Mating System. 

Mating for Exhibition Males. — [The Male]. The mating for exhibition males 
should, first of all, contain as fine an exhibition specimen as can be reared, bought, or 
borrowed — and I am inclined to say, stolen. The most important feature of this bird 
(if one feature is more important than others) are, undercolor, which should be dark and 
deep ; a good metallic stripe in hackle and saddle ; a concave shaped back, giving the 
graceful touch to every part of the bird; an even plumage, i. e., showing the same shade 
of red in all sections that call for that color; and sufficient station to infuse the bird with 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 



*57 



style and life. These are qualities that a flock takes generally from the male. The other 
sections should, of course, be as near Standard requirements as possible; but the writer 
believes that more improvement can be made in comb, eyes, wattles, lobes, color of legs, 
and many minor points with the female, than in color of plumage, length of lee, and 
general appearance. 

[The Female]. — The females selected for this mating should be dark in color of 
back and wing, with dark undercolor throughout. The color of the neck should be as 
near red as possible, and the stripe as near a metallic black as can be had with the other- 
requisites. The comb should be small, and very evenly serrated. If it stands erect it is 
rather an advantage than otherwise. Such females are prone to have pale or black legs. 
In this case they should not be used if others with the same general characteristics can 
be procured; and while a pale leg may be tolerated, a black, or dark colored leg should 
never be used. Should either male or female fail in this respect, the breeder should see 
that it is strongly offset in the opposite sex. 

Mating for Exhibition Females. — [The Male]. — The mating for exhibition females 
should first of all possess a male bird that is the son of a splendid female, and was sired 
by the son of a splendid female. The further this line can be followed back the more 
certain the breeder may feel of a large percentage of exhibition females in the flock 
reared from this mating. This male should have a five pointed comb, smooth and straight 
over the beak; a light orange hackle, with a fairly good black stripe. His saddle should 
be the same shade of color as the hackle ; but the black stripe is not wanted in the saddle 
of a pullet breeding male. The wing bow should be about the same shade of orange as 
the back, and should be large, running well down into the wing bars. 

[The Female].— The females should be the best exhibition specimens procurable. 
Far better to breed from a single pair or trio than to use inferior females in this mating. 
The female of the present Standard is a rather light colored specimen as Brown Leghorn 
females run. She should have a nicely lopped comb, standing straight in front, and 
gradually drooping to one side, and a small, smooth, white or creamy white lobe. 

The style of female just described, and the male, which is very clearly described in 
the Standard, can be bred successfully only by the double mating system. 

The Single Mating System. 

The single mating system might, by chance, produce fairly good specimens of the 
types ; but even so, the blood must be properly balanced, and who is to foretell that such 
is the case? The single mating is one in which the best exhibition male and the best 
exhibition females are mated together to produce exhibition birds of both sexes. Its 
merit is not known under the present Standard. Its fault is that it seldom produces a 
bird of either sex of exhibition merit. It has for a recommendation only the beaut v of 
its simplicity. It will become of use only when males and females of a medium shade of 
color are in vogue. 

The Intermediate Mating. 

A plan of mating that advocates of a single mating very often use, and, no doubt r 
think is a single mating, — though it is not, but may be called an intermediate mating — 
will succeed very well, but not as well as the double and separate matings. This plan 
involves the selection of a male mid-way between the types described for breeding 
exhibition males and for breeding exhibition females. That is, select a medium colored 
male, and mate him to females of both types. 

These are the methods employed, given in a general way. The details must be 
observed and studied by the individual breeder. 



15S PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

217. Mating Silver and Golden Wyandottes. — These varieties being 
alike except in ground color of plumage, the rule for mating to get correct 
markings is the same for both. The breeder of Golden Wyandottes has an 
added difficulty in the task of getting the desired shade of golden bay in the 
ground color. The methods of mating to establish a good ground color are 
similar to those used to produce a uniform buff. (See \ 226). To produce 
the finest Standard specimens of both sexes a mating of exhibition males and 
females is the best that can be made. The rule as given specially for Silvers, 
by A. C. Hawkins, in Farm- Poultry, is : — 

" Mate a male of good size, fine in form ; medium short legs, giving a blocky appearance ; 
medium sized comb, even and well pebbled on top, and curving with the head; breast 
medium dark, w r ith no edging on the feathers ; a strongly striped hackle and saddle ; 
white wing bow, clearly defined double bar on wing, flights free from extra white ; with 
females of full or over weight, good combs, clear open laced centers on breast and back; 
well striped hackles, white wing tips, tails not too high ; both males and females with good 
legs." 

The females with large open centers all over, favored by some judges and 
breeders, are not Standard birds. (The Standard requires medium, not large 
centers in back). Still, the method of producing them is of interest to 
Wyandotte breeders, for if large open centers all over are demanded, notwith- 
standing the Standard, breeders must produce them, and if the fad persists, 
the Standard will eventually be changed to conform to it. It should be noted 
that the rules given below do not properly constitute a system like the double 
mating systems used for Barred Plymouth Rocks and Brown Leghorns. 

Ira C. Kellar's rules (condensed and arranged from a series of articles on 
Golden Wyandottes, in Reliable Poultry Journal) : 

(1). To Produce Large Ce?iters 011 Cushion. — In breeding for large centers of cushion, 
depth of breast lacing in the female is lost. To produce these large centers, mate females 
that have them with a male that has a strong well laced breast, with not too large centers, 
with neck, beak, back, saddle, and wing coverts well laced. Such a mating should pro- 
duce a fair per cent of pullets with good sized centers all over, and nice very open laced 
cockerels. 

(2). To Produce Strongly Laced Males, — mate cockerels from above mating with 
fairly heavily laced females. 

(3). If Females are so Open as to Grow Weak in Breast, — mate with a Standard male. 
Some of the pullets from such a mating will be well laced all over, with quite heavy 
lacing. These mated to a male well laced in every section will produce some pullets up 
to Standard, and a good per cent of Standard marked cockerels. 

(4). To Produce Pullets -with Clear Open Large Centers all over, a fair Per Cent of 
■which xvill Moult into Clear Centered Hens, — breed year after year from males well 
laced all over. Clear centered hens cannot be obtained by breeding Wyandottes heavily 
laced. 

218. Mating Light Brahmas. — The mating of Standard exhibition 
birds, as bred by the best breeders, is the best that can be made, and will 
produce a very small per cent of inferior specimens of either sex. In shape 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



J 59 



the Cochin type on the one hand, and the Langshan type on the other, are to 
be avoided. The comb should be well developed, but firm, well set, the 
three divisions and the serrations well defined. Particular attention should 
be given to the combs of females. These are so small that inconspicuous 
irregularities in them are often overlooked. These same inconspicuous 
irregularities, wrinkles and poorly marked divisions and serrations, are very 
unsightly when they reappear much magnified in the male offspring. The 
head should be broad and strong, with projecting, beetle brows. The neck 
neither so- long as to give the bird a gawky look, nor so short as to make it 
look dumpy ; the breast broad, full, well rounded; the back broad, narrower 
across the saddle than at the shoulders, but not conspicuously so, flat across 
the shoulders, medium in length ; deep bodies, well spread tails ; legs to 
correspond with neck in length, set well apart; shanks well feathered on the 
outside, and outer and middle toes well feathered. 

The common color fault is weakness in black points, too little black, and 
that not of good quality. The black should be clear and bright, with 
metallic sheen ; the hackle striped exactly as described in the Standard ; the 
primaries black in the male, nearly black in the female. [The Standard 
allows a nearly black wing in males, and a wing just more than half black 
in females, — but to produce first class specimens of the type popular, black 
wings in males and in females nearly black must be used]. The main tail 
feathers and inner row of coverts should be free from white, the outer coverts 
edged with white. Black may be conspicuous in the foot feathering, but is 
discredited in the back. The under color should be an even bluish white. 
Old fowls that lose little black in moulting are especially valuable as breeders. 

219. Mating Dark Brahmas. — A double mating system, in which 
both matings are " Standard" matings, is used. The Standard calls for a 
breast, "black or black slightly frosted with white," in males. Males with 
black breasts are used with Standard females for the cockerel mating, and 
males with frosted breasts with Standard pullets for the pullet mating. 

220. Mating Partridge Cochins. — Both systems of mating are used ; 
the single mating of Standard birds; the special cockerel mating Standard 
males to females as dark as the Standard allows ; the pullet mating light 
colored males with brown or red in breast to light colored Standard females. 
The remarks on Light Brahma shape apply generally to Cochins. The 
Cochin has not the broad skull and overhanging brows ; but aside from that, 
the differences in form are chiefly due to differences in length and density of 
plumage. 

221. Mating Colored Indian Games. — Double matings are used : for 
cockerels, Standard males with dark females, not well penciled ; for pullets, 
laced males (the Standard male is not laced) with Standard females. 



1 60 PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

222. Mating Houdans. — Houdans lose black very rapidly in eachsuc- 
ceeding moult, and in mating the age of the specimen has to be considered. 
Young birds of either sex in which the black does not largely predominate, 
should not be used. Good matings are: (1) A cock a little darker than 
Standard, with Standard hens. (2) Cock as above, with pullets a little too 
dark for exhibition. (3) Cockerel nearly black, with Standard pullets. 
(4) Cockerel as in (3), with light colored hens. Special attention should 
he given to the crest of the male. It is never as good as in the best females, 
hut unless it is fairly developed and good in form, the greater part of the 
offspring are likely to have very poor crests. 

223. Mating Spangled and Penciled Hamburgs and Polish. — For 

all these varieties, single matings of Standard birds are used. Experts in 
these varieties advise that a mating which gives good results be kept unchanged 
as long as the birds comprising it can be used for breeders. 

224. Mating White Varieties. — In those white varieties for which 
the Standard requires pure white plumage and bright yellow legs and skin, 
the best mating is of fowls with shanks and skin a good yellow, and just the 
faintest creamy tint in the plumage, a little stronger on the backs of the males 
than elsewhere, and generally a little stronger next the skin than on the surface, 
but not anywhere approaching a straw color. The backs of young males 
should be quite white. As a rule a cock will show more color than he did as 
a cockerel. Those which at two years old show little color are most desirable 
breeders. In breeding the white varieties which do not have yellow skin and 
legs, the pure white plumage is less difficult to get. 

225. Mating Black Varieties. — The correct black is a brilliant black 
with greenish luster ; the faulty black has a dead rusty look or a purplish cast. 
The commonest color defect in black fowls is white, or gray, in the flights, — 
often only a mere tip of grayish white. Breeders have found it difficult to 
breed this entirely out, and the usual practice is to tolerate it in all round good 
specimens, at the same time avoiding mating together males and females having 
the fault in common. In black fowls with yellow skin and legs : — Cochins, 
Wyandottes, Leghorns, — clean yellow shanks are rarely produced. In Black 
Langshans yellow in the feet generally indicates the presence of Cochin blood. 
Breeding from birds having the fault not only retains the objectionable color, 
but makes it harder to maintain the true Langshan shape. 

226. Mating Buff Varieties. — The buff varieties, with the exception 
of Cochins, are all new, and the up-to-date Cochin might without great 
impropriety be styled a new variety. Though buff is called a " solid " color, 
it is by no means an easy color to handle. Breeders find it quite as difficult 
to get one uniform shade of buff in all sections and keep it, as to get any 
combination of colors and markings described in the Standard. At present 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. l6l 

the popular shade is a golden buff; between the reddish buff and the pale yellow 
which were the extremes of color which different breeders have been calling 
buff. In mating buff fowls, the best method is to use birds of both sexes as 
near the desired golden buff as can be obtained, avoiding the mating of birds 
having color defects in the same section, whether the defects are similar or 
opposite. The common color faults in bud' fowls are white, or black in 
wings and tails; red on the backs and shoulders of males; very light breasts 
on females ; black ticks or lacing on necks and backs ; mottled plumage, slaty 
under color, white under color — no under color. Black or gray in any part 
of the plumage except the primaries and main tail feathers, should cause a 
bird to be rejected, no matter how good otherwise. In the sections excepted 
a little dark color may be admitted if the mate of the bird is good buff in them' 
In any case it is not advisable to breed from a specimen in which the foreign 
color is distinct. Birds with positive white in wings and tails should be 
rejected; also those in which the upper and lower webs of the feathers are of 
distinctly different shades. Faded, and slightly mealy wings and tails, may 
be admitted if the bird is pretty good all round, and can be mated with one 
good in wing and tail. A bird extra good in wing and tail can generally be 
used to advantage, though rather weak in other sections. In breeding to c et 
the red out of the backs of males, the lightest females that can be found that 
are a good bright even surface color, the same on back and breast, should be 
mated to males as free from red as they can be had, and fairly uniform in all 
sections Specimens with pale eyes should be rejected. In an exhibition 
bird surface color is worth more than under color ; but in breeding, a bird o- QO d 
in under color will get more good even colored chicks than one better on the 
surface and not so good in under color. 

227. The Breeding Season is early or late, long or short, according to 
the purpose and progress of the breeder. For breeding early market poultry 
stock should be mated late in the fall. l„ producing laying stock the chicks 
of different breeds should be hatched at such times that the pullets will come 
to laying maturity tolerably early in the fall, yet not so early that after laying 
a few eggs they moult like old hens. Brahma and Cochin pullets begin to lav 
at seven to nine months; Langshans, six to eight months; American breeds, 
five to seven months; Leghorns and the smaller breeds generally, four to six 
months. Very precocious stock may lay earlier, very backward pullets later, 
than the periods specified.. If it is desired to have pullets coming to laying 
maturity from September first to November first, hatches should be : -for 
Brahmas and Cochins, February and March ; for Langshans, March and April ; 
for Plymouth Rocks, March fifteenth to May fifteenth; for Wyandottes, April 
brat to June first ; for smaller varieties, May first to July first. The breeding 
pens should be mated up at least five or six weeks previous to the earliest date 
given for hatching each class of fowls. When breeding fowls are shipped 
from a distance, it is best to buy so early that the birds have several months in 
which to become acclimated before the beginning of the breeding season. 



1 62 POULTR T- CRAFT. 

Large breeders of exhibition and stock birds try to have stock ready to sell for 
exhibition at any and all times, from the earliest fair to the latest poultry 
show. A few hatch practically the year round. It is always better to be a 
little in advance of the season, than to run the chance of a set-back which will 
put operations so far behind that the loss cannot be recovered that season. 

228. Care of Breeding Stock. — Many breeders try to discourage their 
breeding hens from laying in the winter; not merely that they may lay more 
eggs when eggs for hatching are wanted, but because they wish to have them 
in tip-top physical condition during the breeding season. They are not always 
entirely successful in this, but by keeping them a little fat, generally keep egg 
production below the point where it begins to tell on vitality. Those who use 
the same hens for laying and breeding should, if the hens lay early in the 
winter, give them a few weeks rest just before the breeding season. (If only 
the best hens are used for breeding, this need not cause a break in the total 
yield of eggs. Sometimes the rest will come about naturally; the hens after 
some weeks or months of laying going broody. They may then be allowed 
to hatch a brood of chicks (to be reared by another hen or in a brooder) or, 
if chicks are not wanted* at that season may be allowed to sit for a while on 
nest eggs. In either case they should be well fed. 

If the breeding stock can be given range, well and good. If that cannot be, 
it will be found that with exercise, green food, and meat furnished as needed, 
as good chicks can be obtained from fowls in confinement as from fowls at 
liberty — by far the larger number of good fowls are from yarded stock. + 
The stock should not, however, be crowded ; considerably more space per 
hen should be allowed than is generally given laying hens. 

The food need not be different from that of the laying stock, except that if 
the layers are given stimulants of any kind, it is better to leave them out of the 
food for the breeders. A very gallant male is sometimes so solicitous that the 
hens shall get all the food they can eat, that he neglects to eat himself. When 
this is the case the male must have extra food to keep him in condition. A tame 
bird may be fed from the hand when the others are fed ; a shy bird should be 
removed from the pen in the evening, fed by lantern light, and given a good 
feed again next morning before being returned to the pen. If at any time a 
bird in the breeding pen seems dull, though not downright sick, it should be 
removed until in good condition. The males need such attention most. 

* Note. — Early chicks hatched in this way generally come in very acceptably for 
market or for the table. They need not be from the breeding stock, and can be eaten 
and out of the way before the later better chicks are crowded by them. 

tNoTE. — There is a great deal of nonsense talked and written about free range and 
unlimited range. The truth is, our American improved varieties of domestic fowls are 
pre-eminently domestic in their habits, and confine themselves to quite narrow limits 
unless literally starved into extending them. A man can take as much exercise in a 
garden plot as on a ten thousand acre ranch. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 1 63 

Slight disorders, which would quickly pass off were the bird isolated, may 
develop serious trouble if he is continued in service when not in condition. 
A hen out of condition, and moping, is likely to be injured by the male, or 
worried by other hens unless removed from the pen. Hens that go broody 
should be broken of the fever, and kept laying as long as their eggs are needed 
for hatching. After that it is better to allow them to hatch and rear a brood. 
Whenever it is feasible, a breeder, though using but one mating, should 
have a good male in reserve, in case the one he has put in the breeding yard 
prove impotent, or meet with an accident, or prove in any way unsatisfac- 
tory. Breeders who use many matings always hold a number of good birds 
in reserve. Unless one does so, be may lose a season's work from a good 
pen of hens. When eggs are no longer neede'd for hatching, it is better to 
remove the males from the pens, and not allow them to run with the hens 
again until the next breeding season. They only worry the hens, and retard 
their own moult. Often the old males show no attention to the hens except 
to viciously drive them about. 

229. About Eggs for Hatching. — The eggs should be gathered daily — 
oftener if there is danger of their becoming chilled — and given a distinguish- 
ing mark, or marks, which will identify them as from a particular pen. If 
one has more than one mating of a variety, the name, or initials of the name, 
of the variety is not enough ; the number of the pen or mating should be 
added. The need of this is obvious. If the breeder does not accurately 
mark all eggs when taken from the nests, he never knows what he is hatching 
himself, and his customers buying eggs, as they suppose, from several matings, 
and wishing to keep account of the chicks from each, are not at all favorably 
impressed if the eggs sent them are all marked alike, or not marked at all. 
Who can blame them, in such a case, if they are a little skeptical as to the 
shipper knowing as much as he ought to about his stock? There cannot be 
intelligent selection without accurate knowledge of the results of matings ; 
there cannot be such knowledge without proper identification of eggs and 
chicks from each mating. 

In sorting, culling the eggs, the rule should be to reject imperfect eggs, 
small eggs, and very large eggs ; but the rule must be applied with judgment, 
allowing exceptions in some circumstances. A hen which it is most desirable 
to breed from may lay a poor egg ; and it may be more advantageous to breed 
her good qualities into the stock — and this fault, if it appears, out — than to 
reject her eggs. Many eggs with imperfect shells, which would quite 
certainly be broken if given hens to incubate, can be hatched in a machine. 
Extra large eggs, which in most incubators could not be hatched with smaller 
eggs, can be hatched under hens if there is an object in hatching them. 

Eggs for hatching should be kept in a cool dry place ; — a temperature of 
40 to 50 F. is best. They do not need to be turned at all while thus kept, 
nor is it necessary that they should be placed in any particular position. This 



164 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



statement is contrary to advice commonly given, but is in accordance with 
general practice : — few breeders turn the eggs, and it has not been observed 
that turned eggs hatch better — and is confirmed by the highest authority on 
artificial incubation. (See Cyphers' "Incubation and Its Natural Laws," 

P- 53)- 




PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 1 65 



CHAPTER XI 



Hatching and Rearing Chicks. 

230. The Two Systems. — There are two methods of hatching and 
brooding chicks : the natural, in which the chicks are hatched and brooded 
by hens ; and the artificial, in which they are hatched in incubators and 
brooded in houses, as described in .^[46-48, or in separate out-door brooders. 
The conditions which would determine the choice of method were stated in 
\6o. The natural method is still in most general use. The other is oftener 
used by those operating on a large scale, and is coming, year by year, into 
more general use. As to results, — that depends more on the operator than 
on the method. * As good chicks can be reared without hens as with them. 
In using the natural method, the operator divides the responsibility with the 
hens; in using the artificial method, he assumes it all. After weaning, the 
treatment of the chicks is essentially the same, no matter which method had 
been previously employed. 

THE NATURAL METHOD. 

231. Remarks. — The sitting hen's reputation for fickleness and per- 
versity is not deserved. The trials of those who find the care of sitting hens 
and hens with chicks too troublesome, are mostly clue to the failure to furnish 
proper facilities for the work, and to handle the stock systematically. It is 
easy to handle hens and chicks in large numbers if one goes about it in the 
right way. The complaints against hens are : they do not persist in broodi- 
ness ; they will not sit elsewhere than on their laying nests ; after being set, 
they desert the eggs ; they remain too long away from the nests, allowing eggs 
to become chilled ; they quarrel among themselves, and break eggs ; they 
trample chicks in the nests ; they kill each other's chicks ; their chicks are 
lousy, etc. These are preventable evils. 

* Note. — That those who fail with one method often succeed with the other, is to be 
attributed to personal differences in taste and temperament, and in the bent of talent. It 
seems to be impossible for some persons to acquire the little, elementary, engineering 
skill required to successfully operate an incubator; yet these same persons may be very 
expert in the use of the natural method. And there are many people who will never 
force themselves to do the routine work of caring for sitting hens in such a way that good 
results are a practical certainty; but will take pleasure in working with machines, and 
will be very successful with them. Many poultry keepers work equally well with either 
method; and not a few people who try to raise fowls fail, no matter which method they 
try- 



1 66 POULTR T- CRAFT. 

232. Selecting Hens for Sitters. — As has been said, results in general, 
depend on the operator more than on the method. In using the natural 
method, the operator has an early opportunity to display good judgment in 
the selection of the hens to be used for sitters. Not all hens make good 
sitters. Not all that have done well through the period of incubation, can be 
trusted to bring out the chicks and nurse the broods. A hen that is not in 
fair condition — neither thin nor grossly fat, — or that does not feel hot to the 
hand when handled (with the hand under the body, and the fingers touching 
the skin), or that will not allow herself to be handled freely, after dark, at 
least, should not be used. * Nor should a hen with a vicious disposition be 
used ; a point of prime importance in this method is to use hens that are easily 
managed. 

There is a general prejudice against large heavy hens as sitters, because 
eggs are so often broken by them. It is, to say the least, questionable whether 
that prejudice is well founded. The large hens are usually very gentle and 
quiet, deliberate in their movements. When they break eggs with good 
shells, it is because they are lousy, or because suitable nests have not been 
provided for them. If their nests are roomy, easy to walk into and from, 
there will be little trouble with clean hens breaking good eggs. There are 
some hens of all sizes that are nervous, excitable, and break eggs constantly. 
Very small hens are not desirable sitters in cold weather. 

233. Where to Set the Hens. — When only a few hens are set each 
year, the nests can be placed almost anywhere that the hens "will be free from 
annoyances. When more than three or four are to be sitting at one time, it is 
best to provide special quarters for them. Fig. 39, shows a good arrange- 
ment for a small plant, one which relieves the operator of the trouble of 
moving the hens to new nests. On large plants, where hens are used for 
hatching, the usual arrangement is to set them in the surplus stock pens, or 
in pens from which the laying stock has been removed. Whatever plan is 
adopted, it is important to have the sitters at one of the most accessible parts 
of the plant, and all near together. 

234. The Nests — should be like those shown in Figs. 37 and 38. (This 
is not absolutely necessary, but a nest with a front just high enough to retain 

* Note. — Some shy hens lose their shyness when broody. Others cannot at first be 
touched by daylight. If their services are needed for hatching, it is quite an easy matter 
to win the confidence of such hens, and make them quiet enough to handle. All that is 
necessary is to approach them cautiously, coming near and putting the hand as close as 
the}' will allow without leaving the nest, then withdrawing it before they have quite made 
up their minds to fly. Continue this at convenient intervals until, finding they are not 
to be hurt, they remain quiet, and at length allow themselves to be handled. It takes a 
little patience, and a few minutes daily for several days. Too many poultry keepers try 
to subdue their hens by main strength and awkwardness — principally awkwardness. In 
no case should a hen that cannot be handled, be set, — not if the keeper wants to manage 
things himself. 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. i 67 

the nesting material is most convenient for examining the eggs, if necessary, 
when the hen is on the nest, and is about the only style of handy nest in which 
a hen can be confined). If only two, four, or six hens are set in the same 
apartment, open nests may be used — though even for that small number, the 
closed nest is safer and surer ; — but where many hens are set together nests 
that can be closed are indispensable. The nest boxes may be with or without 
bottoms. They should be placed with backs to the walls, all facing the center 
of the pen. If with board bottoms, a few inches of earth should be put in 
each nest, slightly hollowed, and the corners of the nest filled up high (that 
if eggs are accidentally pushed toward them there may be no depression into 
which they can slip, remain and get cold), before the nest material proper is 
put in. Bottomless nests ai - e more convenient, and more easily kept clean. 
They are, however, hardly suitable to use on a board floor. On an earth 
floor the bottomless nest is by all odds the best. The floor where the nest is 
to go should be raked smooth, and after the nest is in place the earth under it 
should be formed and firmed as described for the other nests. 

For nesting material, straw, hay, or excelsior may be used. Very long 
coarse hay or straw is not suitable. Soft hay or straw of medium length is 
better than cut stuff; — the nest made of it keeps its shape better. Just 
enough material should be used to make a good firm mat over the earth. 
Unless there is to be a period of probation, on china eggs, for the hens, each 
nest should be shaped and well Jirmed with the hand before eggs are placed 
in it ; or the hen in trying to shape the nest with eggs in it will break some of 
them. It is a good plan to thoroughly dust the nest with insect powder before 
placing the hen on it. If this is done, and the hens were quite free from lice, 
they need not be powdered again for eleven or twelve days. 



235. Setting the Hens. — It is a good plan to have regular days — once 
a week is often enough — for setting hens, and to set as many as possible each 
time, that if there are many infertile eggs the sittings may be doubled tip, and 
that the broods hatched may be equally distributed to just as many hens as are 
needed to take care of them. If open nests are used the hens are often given 
a few days probation on nest eggs, before being trusted with the eggs which 
they are to incubate. If closed nests are used, such probation is unnecessary, 
and a distinct gain of several days for each hen is made. (Those who use the 
open nests find it necessary to close in some hens at first, using a board or box 
for that purpose. The movable cover is handier, though used only for a 
few days). 

The hens should be moved at night, carried gently, one or two at a time. 
One who is about the poultry houses much in the daytime can generally do 
such work without a light much more quickly and with less annoyance to the 
hens, than if a lantern is carried. If a light must be used, and any of the 
hens are at all shy, it is best to place the lantern where it will throw just 



1 68 POULTR T- CRA FT. 

enough light into the sitters' pen to enable one to see his way to the nests. 
The hens placed on the eggs in the dark will immediately settle down. The 
cover should be fastened in place, and, if there is any uncertainty as to how 
a hen will behave on finding herself in a strange place in the moiming, 
a piece of burlap should be thrown over the nest to keep her quiet. If this is 
not done she may struggle to get out, and in her struggles break many eggs. 
The burlap need rarely be used longer than one or two days. 

236. The Eggs Set should be quite fresh, — the fresher the better. 
Eggs three weeks or more old, will hatch well sometimes, but the chicks 
will be longer in coming out, and be less vigorous than chicks from the 
fresher eggs from the same breeding pens. If it is desired to set eggs of 
different varieties under the same hen, and one kind of eggs is a little slower 
hatching than the other, the slowest eggs can be given the hen first, and the 
others put in a day later. 

237. Keeping a Record of Hatches. — The simplest way to keep 
account of the hens and eggs set is to tack on or above the nests, where they 
can be easily read, cards numbered consecutively, beginning with No. i, for 
the first hen set, and having on them: (i) The date when set; (2) The 
number of eggs set; (3) Variety or kind; (4) Date of first test, number 
fertile, — infertile, — dead; (5) Second test and notes ; (6) Hatch, — number 
of live chicks taken from nest, — number killed or dying after hatching, — 
number failing to break the shell, — to get out after pipping. Such cards can 
be preserved, and will furnish complete data of all hatches. If it is preferred, 
the records can be kept in a note book, the nests being identified by numbers, 
or by descriptions of the hens ; but the card method works better, — is more 
economical of time. 

238. Food and Care of Sitting Hens — The best food for sitting hens 
is whole corn. When open nests are used, a dish of corn, a pan of water, 
a box of grit, and a dust bath are provided, and the hens left very much to 
themselves. With the covered nests, food, water, etc., are provided just the 
same. The hens are let out two or four at a time, and the nests closed again 
after the hens go back, which they should do in about twenty to thirty 
minutes, remaining off longer, as a rule, in warm weather than in cold. This 
work can be looked after by the attendant as he passes and repasses the sitters' 
pens through the day. Pens eight to ten feet square accommodate twelve to 
twenty sitting hens. They can usually be let out four at a time ; so that it is 
a simple matter to get the hens all fed, watered and shut into their nests com- 
fortable and safe for another twenty-four hours without taking an appreciable 
amount of time for the work. The nests should be opened in the same order, 
and at about the same time day after day. Hens that do not return of their own 
accord within a reasonable time, should be driven back. Any that are too 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 1 69 

wild to do this with, should be fed late in the evening. As hens come off, 
the condition of each nest should be noted. If any contain broken eggs they 
should be cleaned at once, if still moist ; if dry, it is as well to mark the 
nest, and clean all such at the earliest convenient time. Hens will be more 
content, keep in better condition, and hatch better and stronger chicks if 
allowed to go out doors every time they leave the nest. They should be well 
powdered with insect powder about the eleventh or twelfth day of incubation, 
and again a week later. 

239. Testing the Eggs. — The eggs incubated ought always to be tested 
as early as fertility can be certainly determined — that is, about the fourth or 
fifth clay for white shelled eggs, and two to four days later for eggs with dark 
thick shells. The removal of the infertile eggs gives those left a better chance. 
If there are many infertile eggs a part of the hens can be reset. If the plan is 
to set hens once a week the test of the eggs last set may be made early the. same 
day, and hens reset with the new lot. Testing ought not to be .neglected. It 
is not to the breeder's interest — unless he merely wants to rest his hens from 
laying — to allow hens to devote their time to eggs that will noT" hatch. 
During the season he needs to get chicks out as rapidly as possible, and it is 
poor policy to "go it blind," as they do who do not test the eggs. Even if 
eggs are running high in fertility, it is better to test, for there may be some 
dead germs, rotting. A rotten egg bi'eaks easily, and when one does break in 
a nest the chances of a good hatch are reduced — besides, there is the' nasty job 
of cleaning the nest and eggs. , 

Egg Testers — are sold by incubator manufacturers and dealers in poultry 
supplies. A home made tester can be made in a few minutes of a small box 
of such size and dimensions that a common hand lamp or a lantern can be set 
in it. If a lamp is to be used, one side of the box should be hinged, or slide in 
grooves ; a hole should be cut in the top directly over the flame, another in 
one side opposite the flame. Over this last hole a piece, of felt or of an 
old rubber boot leg, having in it a hole a little smaller than an egg will pass 
through, should be tacked. If a lantern is used all that is necessary is to knock 
one end out of the box, that the lantern may be put down in it, and fix the hole 
opposite the flame as described above. 

The testing should be done in a dark room. If the pen in which the hens 
are set cannot be made dark enough by covering up the windows, it is best to 
test after dark. The quickest and easiest way is to place the tester on top of 
the nest box, stoop down, take all the eggs from under a hen, putting them on 
the floor in font of the nest. As the eggs are examined replace the fertile 
ones under the hen, and throw the infertiles aside ; then go on to the next 
hen. 

In testing, the light shining through the egg held against the hole in the side 
of the chimney or box shows the condition of the egg. An infertile egg is 
clear. An egg containing a live germ, after being incubated for a week, is 



1 70 PO UL TR i ' CRAFT. 

quite evenly clouded, but lightest at the small end ; has the air space at the 
large end clearly defined, and the line marking the air space remains fixed as 
the egg is turned before the light. An egg containing a dead germ may show 
more faintly clouded than a fertile egg, as if less advanced ; or the germ may 
be discernible, black and unstable — not dark red and in a fixed position, as in 
the live egg. As decomposition proceeds and the egg becomes decidedly 
rotten, it appears more unevenly clouded, and the line of the air space tends 
to remain level as the egg is turned before the light. The infertile eggs may 
be fed to chicks and fowls. 

The novice must expect to make some mistakes in testing. Give the egg 
the benefit of the doubt ; mark it, and test again a few clays later. 

240. Moistening Eggs during incubation is not necessary. In a dry 
climate, if the heat is intense, or a dry wind is blowing while the eggs are 
hatching, it may be necessary to dampen the nest and the earth about it to 
prevent drying of the membrane after the shell is pipped ; but sprinkling 
before the shell is broken can hardly have any -effect on the contents of the 
e gg- 

241. Chilled Eggs. — If hens are set in covered nests, and the.keeper 
sees that they go back in time and shuts them in, there will be no cold eggs. 
If eggs do get cold, it is as well to continue incubation, and note results. In 
the early part of the period their condition can be determined by testing; later 
one must wait until the time is up ; then, if chicks are hatched, judge from the 
chicks themselves whether they are worth keeping. Eggs under hens will 
stand much more cooling than in an incubator. Many instances have been 
known of eggs exposed to an almost freezing temperature for some time hatch- 
ing good strong chicks. Chilling seems to be less injurious during the second 
week of incubation than earlier or later. 

242. When the Chicks are Hatching — it is best to watch them quite 
closely. Some hens become excited when the chicks begin to " cheep," and in 
their restlessness crush eggs, so that the chicks cannot turn in the shells. * If 
possible, such hens should be changed with hens that have been sitting for a 
shorter period. A few hens, perhaps one in a hundred, will kill chicks as 
fast as they hatch, and one must be on the lookout for these. Trampling 
chicks in the nests after hatching, is as often due to weak chicks as to clumsy 
hens ; but there are some hens not to be trusted, and some that will get along 
very well if the nests are not. too full, but not so well with a full nest. When 
there are many hens available, it is not hard to so shift them around that the 
losses of chicks in the nests are kept low. 

243. Helping Chicks Out of the Shell. — If chicks are alive, and seem 

* Note. — Such restlessness is not due to annoyance at being disturbed by the 
attendant examining the eggs. These restless hens will fuss and crush the eggs though 
left entirely to themselves, — and the same is true of many hens that trample chicks. 



POULTR T- CRAFT. 1 7 1 

to be strong, though apparently unable to get out of the shells after pipping, 
they should be let alone until all that can get out by themselves are out; then 
the shell mav be gently broken, and the cap removed. If the membrane is not 
dried to the chick, it should be left to help itself out. If the membrane 
adheres to the down, it should be moistened with warm water — or saliva, 
which is better — and carefully detached. If this can be done without causing 
bleeding, the chick is likely to come on all right ; if it bleeds, it will probably 
die. 

244. After Hatching. — When the chicks are hatched and dry, they 
should be removed from the nests and distributed among the best of the hens, 
each medium sized hen being given from ten to twelve chicks in cold weather, 
and eighteen or twenty in warm weather. Larger broods are sometimes 
given, and hens may do well with them ; but the chicks do not often make as 
good growth as when less crowded. It is better to limit the number to as 
many as the hen can keep warm the coolest nights she has to brood them. 
It must be remembered that the chicks constantly increase in size, while the 
hen remains the same. A hen that has made a poor hatch, for which her con- 
dition seems to be responsible, ought not to be given a brood. It is likely 
that her vitality is low, and that instead of nourishing the chicks, she will rob 
them of vitality when she broods them, and they will in consequence dwindle 
and die, seemingly without cause. A scaly legged hen ought never to be used 
as a mother — though if not too bad, she may be used to incubate eggs. 

245. Puny and Deformed Chicks should be killed at once. It is 
neither kindness nor policy to keep them. This is one of the hardest lessons 
for the poultry keeper to learn. The weaklings appeal to his sympathies. 
He cannot find it in his heart to take away their slender chances of life, and 
he is averse to voluntarily giving up any results of his labor except for value 
received. If one will make a practice of killing every weakling as he takes 
the chicks from the nests, he will see the general condition of his young stock 
much improved, and will be far less troubled with the common ills of chick- 
hood. 

246. Marking Chicks. — If the chicks are to be marked, it should be 
done by making punch marks in the webs of the feet as they are removed 
from the nests, using one of the markers made especially for the purpose. 
Marking can be done at any time, but chicks may become mixed after being 
taken from the nests; and further, if the marking is done when they are but a 
few hours old, the cut will bleed but little, and there is not the danger of 
chicks picking each other's feet as they often do when marking is postponed 
until they are older, and the cut bleeds more freely. As there are two webs 
in each foot, it is possible so to mark the chicks that the offspring of sixteen 
different matings of each breed or variety can be readily identified by the- 



1 72 PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

absence of a mark for mating No. 1, and the . 

positions of the punch marks for Nos. 2 to 16, 1 ' 1^ 1^ 

inclusive. O z^[\ /[\ 

247. Keeping Chicks Free from Lice. —If 3 |c\ /|\ 

the sitting hens have been treated to prevent the 2| ' | \ /o|\ 

rapid increase of lice while they are incubating, er A\ /K 
the chicks should be quite free from lice when * 

taken from the nests ; but, as lice are elusive P 'oIca 

creatures, and not always found when wanted, J /[\ 

and as a very few of them can do a great deal of ^ /K 

o /10 s /o 



damage to a young chick in a short time, it is best 
to powder all the young chicks when taken from u 4d\\ ' la- 
the nest, and at intervals of about a week, until |Q / ^J\ /^]\ 

three or four weeks old. After that they need *» A\ A\ 

11 /Ion /|dv 



not be powdered unless unmistakable indications 

of the presence of lice are observed. 14 /6|CT\ /6|\ 

The easiest, quickest, and surest way to treat -JO /$b\ // |rV 

chicks for lice, is to powder them in the coops in . . /k /k 

the evening or early in the morning, using a large * * °> /olo\ 

powder gun, which can be bought at any store ; \£) /)o\ /o|o\ 

or a box with a perforated cover, giving the chicks i/» A\ /K 

1 • . r f v f, , u • f 10 ^^ ^P^ 

a good sprinkling ot it — the hen being meantime 

held in one hand, — working it well into the „. „„ _ L «.-,,',. , 

' & Fig. 78. Punch Marks for Chicks. 

feathers of the hen, held head downward, and 

puffing it into every corner of the coop, which should then be closed. If the 
work is done at night, it should be left closed ; if in the morning, it should be 
kept closed for half an hour or so. When coops like that in Fig. 44 are used, 
the coop is tipped back during the operation of powdering. At first thought this 
may seem an awkward way to go at it, but it will be found that neither hens 
nor chicks can get out through the slide door as they can through a hinged top 
when it is moved. Some poultrymen use lard on the heads, under the wings, 
and at the vents of young chicks, to kill lice. This mode is effective, but too 
slow, as it necessitates the handling of each and every chick. With the 
powder twelve or twenty chicks are treated as quickly as one, and with fresh 
strong powder the treatment is effective every time. 

248. Colors of Chicks When Hatched. — Those not familiar with the 
appearance of chicks of the various pure breeds when first hatched, are often 
disappointed when they see the color of the chicks in the down so different 
from that of the mature fowl, and imagine that there is something wrong with 
the stock. Chicks of white varieties are generally canary colored when 
hatched ; but White Plymouth Rock and Wyandotte chicks are often quite 
dark gray. Light Brahma chicks are mostly canary colored, or canary colored 
with one or two small irregular black spots on head and back. A few are 



POULTR T- CRA FT. 1 73 

quite gray. Chicks of black varieties are mostly black on the backs ; canary 
colored on the breasts. Barred Plymouth Rock chicks are gray on the backs, 
lighter underneath, with generally a light splash on top of the head. The 
cockerels are much lighter colored than pullets from the same matings. In 
nearly all varieties there is more diversity in the color of the chicks when 
hatched than when feathered. 

249. The First Feed for the Chicks need not be essentially different 
from those which are to follow ; nor need the food given the first few weeks 
be different in kind from that given later. The young chick needs precisely 
the same kinds of food that the older chick and the mature fowl need ; but it 
needs it in form adapted to smaller digestive organs, and needs food oftener. 
The matter of feeding has been so fully covered in \ 137 — 146, special 
rations for young chicks being given in \ 146, 21 — 2S, that the same ground 
need not be gone over here. Chicks may be fed as soon as they will eat. 
There is not the slightest danger of their injuring themselves by eating before 
their systems are ready for food.* 

250. Water for Young Chicks. — It is possible to grow young chicks up 
to four or five weeks of age without giving them water. Nearly all expert 
poultry keepers are agreed, however, that the chicks ought to have water from 
the start. They should have constant access to it, and if by any chance they 
are deprived of it long enough to become very thirsty, they ought not to be 
allowed to drink freely of cold water immediately. By giving the water warm 
at first, cramps and chills are prevented. 

251. About Cooping. — For the first few days the chicks are as well off 
indoors in a box just large enough for the hen to move about comfortably. If 
the weather is cold and wet, they should be kept in still longer ; but not in 
too close quarters. A good plan is to confine the hens in small coops — boxes 
with slats across the fronts will do — and allow the broods of several hens to 
run on the same pen floor. When the time comes to put them outdoors, the 
hens should still be confined. Many promising broods are ruined by the hens 
running the chicks "off their legs," wearing them out completely. Even 
after the chicks are strong enough to keep up with a foraging hen, it is better 
to place the hen under restraint ; then each chick can run just as much or as 
little as it pleases, and those that are weaker than the others — yet not -weak- 
lings — have a better chance than when compelled to keep the pace set by 
the hen or the strongest chicks. 

Many hens which are themselves model mothers, are vicious toward the 

* Note. — It is often stated that chicks are injured by being fed before the yolk 
absorbed previous to exclusion is assimilated, and that they should not be fed until 
twenty-four hours old. Some chicks will eat within twelve hours of being hatched, and 
some will not eat for thirty-six hours or more, though food is frequently before them and 
the hen inviting- them to eat. 



i74 POULTRY- CRAFT. 

• 

chicks of other hens, picking and worrying them whenever they come near. 
This can only be prevented by making it impossible for the hens to get at 
strange chicks; or, making it easy for the chicks to escape from angry hens. 
With coops as shown in Fig. 44, having the slats of the coop pens pei'pen- 
dicular, the chick which wanders into a strange coop will almost invariably 
get away before being hurt. The coop shown in Fig. 45, gives still more 
complete protection, but is too expensive to use unless it is necessary to 
protect from hawks and cats, for which purpose that coop was specially 
constructed . 

With a coop that is tightly built, and can be closed tight, chicks can be 
reared outdoors in winter when the thermometer ranges to 20 below zero. 
(Chicks hatched in winter stand cold much better than late chicks — early 
summer chicks — stand extreme heat). This, of course, cannot be done 
when there is much snow, but in a snowy country such coops can be set 
tinder a rough shed where the ground is tolerably dry, and good chicks reai-ed ; 
not on a commercial scale for market, — but for hardy stock birds of the large 
breeds. 

Sometimes hens do not brood their chicks as much as they should on cold 
bleak days. In that case they should be shut into the coop house, and the 
door left open just enough to let the chicks pass in and out. The coop should 
be made quite dark. In the dark the hens will brood the chicks whenever 
they come to them. 

When coops with perpendicular sides are used, shade can be given by 
spreading pieces of burlap over the tops of the runs. A grain sack, which 
gives two thicknesses of burlap, will keep the ground inside the pen dry 
through quite a long shower, and dry all day through a drizzling rain. 

Coops placed on grass should be moved every few days. When coops are 
kept permanently in one spot, the ground under the coop pen should be 
frequently cleaned of droppings. The coop houses need cleaning about twice 
a week while the chicks are small. As soon as the chicks are so large that 
one night's use of the coop leaves it dirty, coops should be cleaned daily. 

If the coop floors become damp, and there is not sunshine to dry them, a 
few handfuls of dry chaff, or a little dry road dust or coal ashes, should be 
spread over them. 

252. Making Hens Lay While Brooding Chicks, and keeping them 
brooding chicks after commencing to lay, relieves the poultry keeper at the 
same time of two of the most objectionable features of the natural method. 
Generally the hens wean their chicks shortly after beginning to lay. If they 
continue brooding the chicks they rarely lay. In coops with roomy pens the 
hens can be got to laying in about a fortnight after the chicks are hatched, 
and will continue laying and brooding the chicks as long as is desirable. The 
hens are put in laying condition by being fed only three times a day, instead 
of five or six times, as when fed with the chicks ; all but three of the feeds 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 1 75 

given the chicks being placed away from the coops out of the reach of the 
hens. Then after the hen has laid for a few days, she stops clucking to the 
chicks ; but as hen and chicks use the same coop, she cannot help brooding 
them. Often hens will go broody while laying in the coops, and after sitting 
on the floor for a few days come out as attentive to the old brood as when it 
was hatched. Not one hen in fifty will drive her chicks from her after she 
begins laying if she has no chance to associate with other fowls. 

THE ARTIFICIAL METHOD. 

253. Remarks. — The circumstances to which this method is best 
adapted, the choice and placing of incubators, and the different arrangements 
for brooding, were considered in 1 60, 61 , and ^ 45 — 48. The use of machines 
to take the place of hens does not relieve the operator of the necessity of giving 
continuous close attention to the details of incubation. On the contrary, his 
work becomes, in a way, more exacting. Machines do not run themselves, 
nor can a child run them. Purchasers of. incubators and brooders get with 
their machines the manufacturers' directions for running them. These are 
not always fully adequate ; they cannot apply exactly in all cases ; there is 
always something left to the judgment of the operator. More new operators, 
however, make mistakes in disregarding or misinterpreting instructions than 
in following them too closely. Radical changes from prescribed methods are 
almost certain to be wrong. In departing from instructions— (a course to 
be taken only when he is fully convinced of its necessity, and has a clear idea 
of what he expects to accomplish by the change) — the operator should feel 
his way as cautiously as one balancing scales when weighing out a costly 
article. 

While there are differences in the methods of running different machines, 
and like machines in different places, there are certain general facts of 
universal application, and it is by these that the operator must be guided in 
adjusting instructions to suit his circumstances. In the following paragraphs 
the statements of noted experts and authorities have been arranged to give in 
condensed form the latest and best opinions and advices on the principal 
points in artificial hatching and brooding.* 

254. The Care of the Lamp.— 

" The lamp should be trimmed every day. I prefer morning to any other time. The 
charred portion of the wick can be cut off with a pocket knife. Turn the wick down just 
a little, to make sure there is no sound wick above the burner tube. Then place the heel 
of the knife on a level with the top of the tube, and draw the full length of the blade 
while crossing the tube. This will make a clean cut. Be very careful to hold the knife 

* Note. — Most of the statements credited to Mr. Cyphers, in subsequent paragraphs, 
are from "Incubation and Its Natural Laws." Those credited to Mr. McFetridge, are 
from " Poultry." Others are from contributed articles in Farm-Poultry, and from earlier 
books by Mr. Boyer, in this series. 



1 76 PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

at a true level, so that one cut will do. Then turn wick down so as to preserve its 
smoothness while cleaning the tubes. Wipe all bits of loose charred wick off. Then 
with a small piece of sandpaper make the burner bright. The sandpaper should be very 
fine, so as not to scar the burner. * * * 

"Always wipe all oil from the top of the lamp. Never fill quite full. Now and then 
lift the screen that is around the burner, and thoroughly clean all dust from it. Should 
the light flicker, see if the screen is not filled up with dust. The dust absorbs oil from the 
zvich, and should the burner ever get hot enough to form gas it tvill explode. * * * 

'• It is a good plan to turn on a low flame at first after trimming, and in the course of 
twenty minutes go back and see if the flame is sufficient; if not it can then be safely 
turned to the desired point. Remember that the flame increases, instead of diminishing, 
after being trimmed. This alone causes serious trouble sometimes, as some operators 
when they have trimmed their lamps turn the flame on full, thus heating the burner, and 
increasing the flame till the lamp begins to smoke, and the chimney fills with soot. As a 
consequence the lamp goes out. * * * 

" The lamp should have flame enough at all times to keep the regulator in operation, 
but not to excess. Keep all draft from the lamp. The flame should be steady, and 
should never ' flick up.' " (McFetridge). 

255. Temperature. — 

" The bulb of the thermometer should be placed on a fertile egg, and its temperature 
maintained as nearly uniform as possible at 102 degrees during warm weather, and 102 1-2 
degrees during the colder. * * * Eggs will stand considerable variation in temperature 
before the lives of the germs are destroyed. During the earlier stages of incubation the 
development will proceed slowly under a temperature of 98 or 99 degrees ; no more dying, 
if as many, as when incubating at a temperature of 101 ; and if the heat is gradually 
raised the chicks grow quite rapidly during the last stages, and are excluded on time. A 
high temperature during earlier stages of incubation, however, is usually fatal. * * * 
After the eleventh day a temperature of no or 112 degrees, if not too prolonged, is not 
necessarily fatal. The greatest excess of heat can probably be withstood after the 
sixteenth day." (Cyphers). 

" If the egg chamber is 104 or 106 degrees, which is the extreme limit without injury 
to the embryo, taking the temperature from dead eggs, the heat of the live ones may be 
as high as no or 112 degrees. If the temperature is taken from the eggs (which is the 
only proper method) the heat should be either 102 or 103 degrees at the start, and never 
exceed 105 degrees — 106 being the extreme limit of safety. Eggs which have been 
heated to no degrees may hatch out, but nine times out of ten the chicks are not worth 
raising." (Campbell). 

" When a maker tells you his incubator is self-regulating, and will hold the correct 
temperature, he does not mean it will do your thinking for you, predict weather changes, 
etc. When he tells you to keep the temperature at a certain degree, you are certainly 
making a mistake and wasting your energies if they are devoted to preventing the interior 
of the egg chamber showing any variation from the degree mentioned. A good regulator 
is one which maintains a proper equipoise, and if from any cause whatever the interior 
temperature changes, it will automatically and gradually bring the temperature back to 
the proper point without permitting it to reach a dangerous point on either side of the 
hatching degree. A very little patience, and a knowledge of the fact that a fluctuation of 
several degrees, (if not too long maintained), will not injure the hatch in the least, will 
save you a great deal of annoyance on that score." (Homan). 

" If at any time before the tenth day you find the thermometer registering 101 1-2 or 
102 degrees, say in three hours after you have attended to the machine, it is all right. 



POULTR T- CRA FT. 1 77 

Don't try to force the temperature up, as it will incline to raise rather than lower, unless 
the room in which you have the machine is very cold; but on the contrary* if the 
machine goes up to 103 degrees, and is going over that point, you will have to adjust the 
regulator « little.' 11 (McFetridge). 

256. Ventilation and Moisture. — The egg chamber requires to be 
ventilated, that the gases generated in the eggs may be promptly thrown off. 
The currents of air created by ventilation may cause a more rapid evaporation 
of the fluids of the egg than takes place in natural incubation. Some 
operators use no moisture, some none until the seventeenth or eighteenth day, 
some a little throughout the hatch. The principle upon which the 
application of moisture depends is thus lucidly explained by Cyphers : 

"Evaporation from the egg must be held at such a point that the fluids in the 
embryonic structures are ample to keep the membranes moist up to the time of exclusion, 
and the rate of evaporation is not the same under any two degrees of temperature. Eggs 
may be successfully incubated under a temperature that will exclude the chick by the 
beginning of the nineteenth day, or under one that will not exclude the chick until the 
twenty-second. The most vigorous chicks will be produced when the eggs are incubated 
under a temperature that will ripen the embryo by the close of the twentieth day; and any 
variation from this temperature will proportionately affect the vitality of the chicks and 
lower the percentage of the hatch. If we have a rate of evaporation to balance the 
temperature for a twenty-day exclusion, this rate of evaporation will not answer for a 
nineteen or a twenty-one-day — there being too great an amount of evaporation for a 
nineteen-day, and too little for a twenty-one-day. In neither case will many of the eggs 
hatch, but if we supply more humidity (the rate of movement of the air remaining the 
same) for a nineteen-day, and less for a twenty-one-day exclusion, we will have a chance 
for a fair hatch. If we have a degree of humidity to balance a twenty-day exclusion, and 
then raise or lower the temperature half a degree, it will injuriously affect the hatch, 
while a greater variation will ruin it. A constant variation of a degree in temperature 
will have no injurious effect, but if the temperature is permanently raised or lowered a 
degree, the atmospheric conditions for a twenty-daj r exclusion will not answer. 

" It has been universally believed that evaporation from the eggs could only be con- 
trolled by controlling the humidity of the air in the hatching chamber. The humidity of 
the air is but one controlling factor, however, as with the same degree of humidity 
evaporation will be slow or rapid according to the rate of movement of the air, while it 
is not the same under any two degrees of temperature ; and the constant variation in these 
two factors is the cause of the extremely varying results. With a due appreciation of 
these facts, artificial incubation should be more successfully prosecuted in the future than 
it has been in the past. 

" Evaporation is mainly influenced by the rate of movement of the air within the 
hatching chamber, and secondarily by the degree of humidity. The rate of movement of 
the air is controlled by the area and location of the ventilating openings and temperature 
of the outer atmosphere. The degree of humidity cannot be maintained constant when 
maintaining a constant movement of the air, and it is not necessary that it should be. 
The first consideration is to secure a constant rate of movement, and then keep the air 
from becoming too dry. This is practically all that is necessary in supplying humidity 
when the rate of movement of the air is maintained constant." 

Cyphers' rules for ventilating, applying specially to bottom ventilation, will 
not be given here. His method is to adjust the ventilation to keep the air 



178 POULTRY- CRAFT. 

pure, then ascertain by experiment the amount of moisture needed to maintain 
proper evaporation. The simplest method of determining the exact quantity 
of moisture necessary is by testing the eggs. According to Boyer : 

" The air cell on the fifth day should measure about 
a quarter of an inch ; on the tenth day, a half an inch ; 
on the fifteenth day, about five-eighths of an inch ; 
and about three-quarters of an inch on the nineteenth 
day, — the measurement taken in the middle of the 
egg. Such air cells indicate the proper amount of 
moisture ; if less than that, too much moisture is 
given ; if more, there is a lack of moisture.'' 




257. Turning the Eggs. — 

"The eggs should be turned twice a day up to the nine- 
teenth day.* If this is not done, many of the germs will 
dry fast to the shell during the early stages, owing to the 
influence of a high temperature and the breaking up of 
the arrangement of the albumen, which then allows 
the germ to be pressed upward with some force. * * * 

c . -,„ tv cv. r- . tj When the egg is not turned during the later stages of 

Fig. 79. Diagram, showing Correct Pro- t>» & & 

portions'of Air Space at Different Stages of incubation, the embryo does not attain a natural 
Incubation. position, and has little chance of being excluded. 

(By courtesy of Prairie State Incu. Co.) When turning the eggs during cold weather it should 
be done as quickly as possible, so that eggs and chamber lose but little warmth. The 
position of the trays should be shifted at least once a day, so as to equalize the heat, as 
in no large machine can the eggs be heated sufficiently near a uniform temperature to 
warrant leaving them in the same relative position throughout the hatch." — (Cyphers). 

258. Cooling, or Airing, the Eggs. — Some of the highest authorities 
disagree on this point. The disagreement when analyzed, seems to be more a 
matter of form than of fact. Cyphers maintains that cooling is unnecessary, 
and seems to leave the reader to infer that it is objectionable. Campbell and 
McFetridge, while admitting that good hatches may be made without cooling 
the eggs, assert that better, more vigorous chicks are hatched when the eggs 
are properly aired. Campbell's rule for airing is: "None at all in cold 
weather; a great deal in hot weather, with variations to suit between." The 
directions for cooling given by McFetridge are : 

With a Hot Water Machine. — Commence to cool on the fourth day. Keep them 
out for a few minutes only at first. Always close the doors of a hot water machine, and 
cool the eggs outside. (If the doors of a hot water machine are left open, the water in 
the tank, which is the source of heat, is cooled). Do this every morning. Toward the 
last part of the hatch, — about the seventeenth day, — let them cool twenty minutes with 
the temperature of the room about 60 degrees. t 

*Note. — Some operators do not begin turning until after the fourth day, but all authorities are agreed as to the 
necessity of turning from that time up to the nineteenth day, and that after the nineteenth day they should not be 
turned. 

f Note. — As to the rate at which eggs will cool, Cyphers says: — "Under the influence of an atmospheric 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT 1 79 

With a Hot Air Machine. — Cool the eggs by leaving the doors open with the eggs 
in the machine. Never cool below 85 degrees. Don't cool down to 85 degrees every 
time — in general to 90 or 92 degrees. * * * With the hot air machine I cool the eggs in 
the evening; and in a room where the temperature is about 60 degrees, on the sixteenth 
day and after, leave the door open as long as twenty minutes. Sometimes on the 
nineteenth day I leave the door open for nearly an hour. * * The proper time to cool 
eggs is when they are turned. In cooling a hot air machine, say for instance, twenty 
minutes, always open the door for ten minutes before and ten minutes after turning. 

Testing Eggs — see ^[239. 

259. . When the Chicks are Hatching. — Instructions which state that a 
machine is to be kept closed while a hatch is in progress, are not to be under- 
stood as meaning that under no circumstances is the door to be opened ; — only 
that the door is not to be opened unnecessarily — out of mere idle curiosity. 
Most machines have glass doors, through which the progress of the hatch may 
be watched, and the need, if such exist, of intervention from the operator, be 
discovered. What to do when chicks are hatching, is thus briefly and fully 
stated by Campbell : 

" To get out the largest possible number of chicks, I wait until quite a lot of the shells 
are pipped ; then I open the machine, and as rapidly as possible turn all the pips up, and 
place the eggs as close to the door as possible. Those which pip in the air cell, are safe ; 
those which pip below, very often choke at once if not turned up ; prompt turning up 
will save most of them. If the weather is cold this turning up process is done onlv 
twice; if hot, it can be done as often as desired. Then when they begin to come out keep 
an eye on them, and all that can turn around and break through both shell and membrane 
will get out best if let alone. Those which turn and do not break through every time 
they move, are very apt to smother. All such need help by simply pulling off the top 
part of the shell to give them air, and then let them come out. This must never be done 
until the chick is struggling to get out ; neither must the trays be pulled out. Open the 
door and reach in, and work as quickly as possible. * * * Many operators make 
mistakes in removing the chicks from the egg chamber. If the day is hot and close the 
chicks will suffer very much after they become dry if too many are out at once. If they 
are all removed in a cold day the heat will drop too suddenly for what are still to come 
out. My rule is to remove them as soon as dry if they pant ; but if it is cold I only 
remove a few at a time, as the_y become too much crowded for comfort." 

260. Brooding Young Chicks. — It is often said that hatching chicks is 
comparatively easy ; to successfully rear them, is the difficult thing. There 
might be less seeming foundation in fact for this statement if a larger per cent 
of the chicks hatched artificially were really Jit to live when taken from the 
machine. There are chickens and chickens. 

The chicks are generally left in the incubators for from fifteen to twenty- 
four hours after hatching. They are then removed to brooders, as described 
in ^f 46 — 48. Points on feeding brooder chicks are given in % 146, 16 — 20. 

temperature of 65 degrees, the eggs, during the early stages of incubation, will lose one degree each two minutes. 
Under an atmospheric temperature of 35 degrees, they will lose more than a degree a minute. In the latter stage of 
incubation, when the egg has in itself a source of heat, the rate of loss is lower, and consequently the egg cools more 
slowly in a given temperature." 



! So POULTR T- CRA FT. 

The impression is gaining ground among experts that the most important 
thino- in brooding chicks, is the temperature ; that a wrong temperature has 
been responsible for many troubles attributed to food or other causes. The 
mistake most often made has been, keeping the brooders too warm. On this 
point Boyer says : 

" Begin the heat at 90 degrees, and keep it as near that as possible for the first week or 
ten days. Then gradually reduce until (after the chicks are removed to the large brooder) 
they become accustomed to a temperature of 70 degrees, which should be when about 
three weeks of age. What a mistake to begin at 100 degrees, and thus compel the little 
ones to endure torture, instead of comfort. This high temperature is what makes weak 
and delicate chicks. * * * Thermometers can and should be used to determine the heat; 
but after the chicks are made to ' feel at home,' a better sign that all is well is the manner 
in which the chicks act. If, when closing up the house for the night, it will be seen that 
the little ones are stretched out on their brooder floor, with their bills buried in the sand, 
we know that nothing more can be done for them ; everything is right. If, on the other 
hand, they crowd up together, unsettled, there is not enough warmth. Or, if they sit 
with their mouths open, the heat is too great." 

Brooder chicks must be confined more closely than chicks with hens, but 
should still have fresh air and outdoor exercise, especially if they are to be 
reared for stock birds. 

The brooder house, of whatever style, must be ventilated. In this the same 
principles apply as in ventilating houses for adult fowls, with the difference 
that the amount of cold air admitted to the house must be very much less, 
because it is necessary to keep the house for young chicks warmer. The rule 
in this, as in determining the temperature in nursery brooders and under hovers, 
must be the condition and conduct of the chicks — the house must be kept com- 
fortable for them to run about in, and warm enough to keep the temperature 
under the hovers up to the required degree. 

261. Preventing the Common Ailments of Chicks. — The ailments 
most common to young chicks under both systems of management, are " bowel 
trouble," " cramps," " roup," " drooping wings," which terms cover a multi- 
tude of greater and lesser ills. Sometimes the real origin of a trouble is in the 
condition of the parent stock. Sometimes the keeper is directly at fault. 
Often a poultryman uses a dangerous diet or method for years without bad 
results — if his treatment is on the whole good; but eventually it is going to 
cause trouble. When "bowel trouble,"* "roup," or " drooping wings " 
prevail in a flock in a mild form, they should yield to good care, proper food, 
and simple remedies. If they have become acute, it is better to kill chicks 
affected — though in doing so the entire lot be cleaned out. 

" Bowel Trouble " is due to sloppy foods, some kinds of rich foods, 
chills, colds, over-heating, etc. It can be checked in the beginning by keeping 
the chicks warm — not hot — in dry quarters, at a uniform temperature, giving 

*Note. — For more correct descriptions of all these complaints, see the chapter on 
diseases. 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. i S i 

rather dry food, and boiled milk to drink. The chicks ought not to be allowed 
to reach the stage of being " gummed up behind " before treatment is begun; 
nor should the treatment be carried so far that it will bring on the opposite 
evil — constipation. Even in the best lots there will be from time to time 
isolated cases of this ; but with right conditions it cannot become epidemic. 

" Roup," colds, and kindred ailments, are due to dampness, exposure, filthy 
quarters, over-crowding. Wrong conditions should be corrected, and such 
remedies used as are prescribed for hens in ^[ 174. 

"Cramps" are often nothing more than the death struggles of chicks that 
have been ailing for some time. The cramps which kill healthy chicks in a 
short time are mostly caused by drinking too heartily of very cold water, by 
choking, or by extreme heat of the sun when the chicks are not hardened 
to it. 

"Drooping Wings" are due to general debility, which may result from 
any one, or from several of a great variety of causes. The chick simply lacks 
strength to hold itself together properly, erect would be said of a human being. 
The fault is most' noticeable in Leghorn chicks, but is common in poor con- . 
ditioned chicks of all varieties. Prevention must begin in the condition of the 
parents, and continue in the management of the chicks. Proper food and care 
will correct the trouble if not of too long standing. Chicks which have been 
going about long with drooping wings, are not worth trying to cure or rear. 

262. Keeping the Chicks Growing. — Success with chicks requires 
that they be kept constantly growing from the shell to maturity. The slightest 
check is a loss that cannot be made good. Growing chicks is exacting work. 
One must get up early in the morning (unless he adopts the method of the 
breeder who said it was not necessary to get up early, if one sat up late enough 
planning how to get the work done without early rising). The beginner 
cannot expect to do uniformly good work. With the best of instruction, 
advice, and attention, mistakes will sometimes occur. To do everything as 
and when it ought to be done, requires greater familiarity with the work than 
any one can reach in one or two seasons. 

263. Weaning Chicks. — No definite age can be given as the right one 
at which to wean chicks. The condition of the stock and of the weather must 
guide. Chicks should remain with hens or in brooders as long as they need 
or are likely to need heat in addition to that generated in their own bodies. 
Early in the season they need some heat until ten or twelve weeks old. They 
may not die without it, but exposure to a temperature so low that they huddle 
together, will always retard growth. Chicks reared by hens may be left in the 
coops, only the hen being removed, as long as they are not too crowded at 
night. In coops as shown in Fig. 44, they will generally roost on top of the 
coop or lie outside on the ground as soon as it becomes uncomfortable inside. 
One of the best methods of handling weaned chicks is in coops of the 



i S 3 POULTRY- CRAFT. 

style shown in Fig. 46. In these they can be colonized until the time comes 
for putting them into winter quarters. When removed to these coops, they 
should be confined to, and fed in them, for a few days, until they will return 
to them when let out. Directions for feeding are giving in ^[146, 21 — 28. 
Beyond keeping the coops clean, supplying food and water regularly, clos- 
ing the coops at night, and opening them in the morning, the chicks now 
should need no care — even the closing and opening of coops may be 
omitted if there is no danger of their being molested at night. 

264. Teaching Chicks to Roost. — Chicks of Leghorn and other light 
weight bi'eeds will begin roosting of their own accord when six or eight weeks 
old. Chicks of the heavier breeds often do not roost until taught to do so by 
the keeper. The general practice is to keep chicks of medium sized breeds on 
the floor until about three months old, and chicks of the largest breeds for a 
month or two longer. Unless the floor is kept clean and the chicks well 
bedded, it is better to teach all to roost early. If suitable wide roosts are used 
there is no more danger of crooked breasts than, on the floor, and many poul- 
trymen think the general advantages of getting the youngsters on the roosts 
where they cannot crowd and huddle in corners, and are not soiled by their 
own and each other's droppings, more than compensate for what keel bones 
are twisted. 

Often chicks can be taught to roost by putting in low roosts and placing 
with them one or two old hens or chicks that are in the habit of roosting. If 
this plan cannot be tried, or does not work, a wide board should be placed 
close to the wall, about a foot from the ground, and the chicks placed on it 
after dark, night after night, until they will go to it of their own accord. 
After that, a wide roost the regulation distance from the wall, may be substi- 
tuted for the board. 

265. Separating the Sexes. — When the chicks are weaned the cock- 
erels and pullets of the more precocious breeds should be separated. The 
slow maturing breeds may be allowed to run together for four or five months 
if it is not convenient to keep them apart ; but in any case the separation 
should be made at a relatively early age — before the cockerels begin to annoy 
the pullets. If the young males can be put where they never see a fowl of 
the opposite sex, they live together more peaceably, and develop better. There 
is not often any difficulty in distinguishing the sexes when the time comes for 
separating them. Once in a while there is a cockerel which looks more like 
a female than a male at that age ; but such a bird is not likely to annoy the 
pullets, and if put with the cockerels may be buffeted about a great deal. 

266. Rearing Chicks in Confinement. — Chicks reared specially for 
market are always kept quite closely confined, that all food eaten may go to 
the production of flesh ; but there is a feeling among poultry raisers that stock 



POULTR T- CRA FT. i S3 

chicks should be given range while growing. The bald fact that chicks are 
confined, or not confined, counts for nothing either way. Unquestionably the 
most favorable condition for obtaining the best development at least expense,, 
is found where the chicks have a range which furnishes them a considerable 
part of their food — all green food and insect food, and seeds in variety — with- 
out their foraging so far that too much of what is eaten is expended in muscular 
energy. This condition depends on quite small flocks being widely separated, 
and is found much less often than is generally supposed ; for most people who 
s:ive their chicks range expect them to forage over a considerable area, and- 
indeed, compel them to do so; sometimes intentionally by withholding food % 
sometimes unintentionally by neglecting to give a variety of food. The 
method of colonizing the growing stock generally gives range only in name, 
for there are so many placed on so small an area (and often so little forage on 
the ground) that the amount of "food each chick gets by foraging is insignifi- 
cant. It is, therefore, necessary to feed quite as much and as often as if they 
were confined in bare yards. The real advantage of the method is its cheap- 
ness and convenience, not the superiority of the stock produced by it. The 
coops cost little. No fences are used. The chicks are reared outside of the 
winter quarters (occupied by adult stock the year round) and thus the old stock 
is not crowded out at sacrifice prices to make room for the young ones — and 
can be worked off seasonably, gradually, and profitably. 

Not all poultry keepers are so situated that they can give their young stock 
range even by colonizing. This need not deter them from rearing chicks, nor 
need they think it impossible to rear as good chicks as those who give the 
youngsters range. Just as good chicks can be reared in confinement (rather 
close confinement, at that) — as on the best range ; — if the keeper will avoid 
crowding, keep them free from lice, keep their quarters clean, feed a liberal 
well balanced ration judiciously, and give opportunity for such exercise as is 
given laying hens and breeding stock in confinement — but less of it compul- 
sory. Indeed, when the stock runs well up in the hundreds, confinement is a 
much better plan than colonizing with the flocks so near together that they 
can — and consequently do — feed as one flock; for in lai'ge flocks the chicks 
are crowded, (crowd each other), no matter how much room they have. The 
question of giving the growing stock range is just a question of opportunity 
and convenience. If one can give them the right kind of range, that is a very 
great advantage to him. If one must keep them confined, he is handicapped 
to some extent, but not so badly that he cannot get results as good as the best, 
— only he must work harder for it. 

267. Culling the Growing Stock. — In breeding poultry for market 
exclusively, culling proper is not practiced. The chicks are merely sorted,, 
the marketable ones taken as needed — the others left until better grown. In 
breeding laying stock, a very few of the choicest cockerels may be reserved 
for breeding purposes ; the rest should be marketed at the age when they will 
bring most profit. The culling of the pullets extends only to marketing poorly 



1 84 POULTR T- CRAFT. 

developed specimens and those showing defects likely to diminish their future 
usefulness. In breeding thoroughbred stock, proper culling is of great 
importance. It is not often that a poultryman has such superabundance of 
room that it will pay him to keep inferior specimens until grown. The 
economic aspects of the question will be considered in the next chapter. 
Here comment will be limited to suggestions as to the selection of the poorer 
specimens. 

There are five classes of defects to be considered in culling : — 

(i). Deformities, which are constitutional and ineradicable. These are 
not always noticeable in very young chicks, and those that are noticed then 
may be of such character that they do not affect table qualities. Chicks so 
deformed, should be allowed to live until lai'ge enough to be eaten, and no longer. 

(2). General Weakness and Worthlessness, which may be consti- 
tutional, or may be due to mismanagement affecting particular chicks more 
than others. These chicks are simply spoiled in the growing. It is useless 
to try to make good stock of them. 

(3). Blemishes (according to the Standard) Which are Irremediable. 
Of this class are such faults as feathered legs on chicks of clean legged 
breeds, scantily feathered legs in full feathered varieties, color faults that will 
not be outgrown, radical departures from typical shape. Birds thus defective 
are not worth keeping for stock birds ; but many of the pullets may be 
reserved for layers if there is room for them, and if they can be used or sold 
as such ; otherwise, the quicker they go to market the more profitable they are. 

(4). Blemishes Which May be Outgrown — such color defects as 
white in the flights of black chicks, red in white ear lobes, — or the reverse, — 
poor muscular development on big framed chicks, scant plumage on chicks 
with good bone and muscle, etc. 

(5). Faults Which (to the uneducated taste) Appear to be Excel- 
lencies. ■ The most conspicuous example of this kind, — really the only one 
of importance, — is premature attainment of the symmetry of a mature fowl. 
This fault is frequently met in all varieties. It is an accompaniment of 
precocity. The symmetrical chicks are at first much more attractive than 
their less precocious companions, and the novice is apt to think he has a 
"world beater," when he has only a miserable runt, as he finds when all are 
matured. 

The beginner cannot practice very close culling, for it requires a few years 
of watching chicks as they grow, and noting the changes as they approach 
maturity, to enable him to know the defects which will be outgrown, and 
those which will increase. Each year, however, he should cull closer and 
closer, both in selecting for the breeding yard, and in handling the growing 
stock. 



POULTR T- CRA FT. 1 85 

268. Capon izing. — The question of the profitableness of caponizing 
cannot be settled for all classes of poultry keepers, in all sections of the 
country, on the same basis. Such matters have a way of gradually adjusting 
themselves to conditions. There can be no doubt that the practice of caponiz- 
ing is growing. It seems at present equally clear that caponizing is being 
found profitable mostly in sections where grain is cheap, and is gaining favor 
more among farmers than among poultrymen. The reasons for this seem 
clear. The special poultry farmer, with limited accommodations, and under 
the necessity of buying food for his stock, cannot afford to keep on hand any 
considerable quantity of stock that is not earning something to swell his 
current income. He makes more by devoting his space and time to laying 
hens than he could by buying grain to feed to capons ; but with the general 
farmer it is otherwise. He has not the special facilities needed to handle 
many early chicks, and therefore cannot always get his surplus cockerels to 
market while they will bring good prices as broilers or soft roasters. The 
food consumed by a fowl costs him comparatively little, even when he feeds 
salable grain. If instead of marketing his cockerels when, at five or six 
pounds each, they would bring him only a few dollars a dozen, he can 
caponize them, and with twenty or thirty cents worth of corn, (or, even 
using a more costly grain), he can produce capons which will weigh ten or 
twelve pounds when the market is at its best, and may then net him twelve 
to sixteen cents a pound, he can make cockerels every bit as profitable as 
pullets. 

The demand for nice large capons is constantly increasing — small ones are 
salable, but do not bring the best prices. The supply now comes chiefly 
from Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa, — all great grain growing and poultry 
producing states. 

The operation of caponizing is not particularly difficult. To perform it, 
instruments specially made for the purpose are required. These can be 
found advertised in poultry journals, and as full instructions for operating, and 
for the care of the birds before and after the operation, are furnished with 
each set of instruments, the details of the operation need not be given here. 
The operation, of course, requires skill, which comes only with practice. 
The per cent of loss of birds caponized by a skilled operator, is small. The 
large breeds make the best capons. Chicks not capable of making large 
growth are hardly worth caponizing. The operation is performed at two or 
three months — preferably before the comb begins to develop. 



1 86 PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 



CHAPTER XII 



Selling Poultry and Eggs. 

SELLING MARKET EGGS AND TABLE POULTRY. 

269. The Poultry Crop Does Not Move Itself. — The saying : " Good 
poultry sells itself," originated among the marketmen, the middlemen. It 
may be true for dealers who display their wares daily in public places. It is 
not always true for the ordinary producer: — not without qualifications, and, 
especially, not in the beginning. To sell to best advantage ; to dispose of 
different products at just the right time ; to get the best possible returns for 
everything produced, usually requires thought, foresight, and some energetic 
hustling for custom. The instances where a poultry keeper's product, how- 
ever small, is well sold with little effort on his part, are comparatively rare. 
Even when his surplus is sold at the door, he needs to give some thought to 
market conditions, and keep informed of fluctuations in prices ; for however 
honest the buyer may be, the interests of buyer and seller in the same transac- 
tion cannot be identical, and the buyer, as is natural and right, looks after 
his own interestyz'r.sT'. 

270. From Producer to Consumer. — There are several ways of dis- 
posing of goods. They may go from producer to consumer direct, at first 
hand ; or, by longer and more devious channels, thi - ough many hands. The 
farmers' wives sell their eggs and fowls to collectors going about the country 
with wagons, or trade them for supplies at the grocery store or meat market, 
or sell them to families in the nearest town. The keepers of a few dozen hens 
sell their small surpluses to neighbors, or barter them at the stores. The 
business poultryman sells direct to private families, or to hotels, or to 
retailers who want choice stock ; or, if he has not succeeded in getting such 
customers for his products, or finds it more to his interest to give all his time 
to producing, and let others sell for him — for some good poultrymen are very 
poor salesmen ; and sometimes a commission house can handle a poultryman's 
product more profitably for him than he can for himself, — ships all his stuff 
to a commission merchant. The producer has to settle for himself which way 
of disposing of goods will pay him best. It is a question of local market con- 
ditions, personal circumstances, and the kind of business done, — whether 
large or small, and what special combination of the different branches of 
poultry culture has been made. 



POULTR T- CRA FT. 1 8? 

271. Good Stock is Sometimes Hard to Sell. — This, those who have 
something to sell only at irregular intervals soon find out. A man may go 
into the best market in the world with a first class article in good demand at 
the time, and experience some difficulty in getting rid of it ; because while the 
supply as a whole is unequal to the demand, very many buyers will have all 
they need, and no sale will be made until a consumer is found who has not 
been supplied. One condition of selling to the best trade is to be able to 
supply stuff regularly. The producer who can do that, having sold one lot 
that gives satisfaction, finds that this sale brings him a standing order. 

272. When to Sell Eggs. — As a rule, producers realize most on eggs 
by selling them while strictly fresh. Not one in a thousand is in a position to 
preserve eggs, or could make anything by doing so if he were. The profit 
on preserved eggs is for those able to handle them in large quantities, by the 
best cold storage methods. Perhaps the only time it is to the producer's 
interest to hold eggs for higher prices, is when prices are rapidly going up. 
Then it may be worth while to hold any not needed for a regular trade for a 
week or so — not so long that they cannot be honestly sold as fresh eggs — to 
get the few cents per dozen he would gain by holding them. One who is 
supplying a regular trade, especially family trade, should give his customers- 
all they want at current prices, regardless of the few dollars possible profit to 
be made by holding them back. It pays to favor good customers a little when 
eggs are high. There comes a season, every year, when eggs are plenty and 
cheap, and what favors are going come from the customer. 

273. How Eggs are Sent to Market. — Eggs in quantity are shipped 
mostly in thirty-dozen cases, (though thirty-six dozen cases are sometime 
used) . Such cases are put up for sale in knock-down bundles. There are 
several styles. The cheaper ones, with pasteboard fillers, are most used. 
For small lots of eggs, half-cases, or cases holding ten dozen each, are often 
used. For the family trade, which takes only two or three dozen eggs at a 
time, pasteboard boxes of suitable sizes are desirable. Such boxes can be 
purchased of paper box manufacturers, or of dealers in poultrymen's supplies.. 
They are very convenient for delivering eggs from wagons ; are sometimes 
used to deliver market eggs by express, though the proportion of transporta- 
tion to value on such small packages is too large for the practice to become 
general. However sold, eggs should be clean, and assorted according to size 
and color. One should never attempt to work off the small eggs with the 
others. If there are more than can be used at home, they should be sold for 
what they are — cull eggs. Everywhere medium to large eggs sell best. 
The preferences of different localities for eggs of different colors, were given 
in % ioi. 

274. Shipping Eggs to Commission Merchants. — There are many 



iSS POULTR T- CRA FT. 

poultry keepers, farmers especially, who could ship one or more cases of eggs 
weekly, and would like to send them to one of the larger markets, and get a 
little better price than they can from local buyers, if they could sell through 
a reliable commission house. Small shippers, who cannot make personal 
investigation of the standing of the parties to whom they consign goods, are 
inclined to be shy of commission merchants ; and not without reason, for they 
and their neighbors have lost again and again through commission merchants 
of the here today and there tomorrow variety, who offer them big inducements 
to ship goods, and then fail to make returns on shipments received ; but 
there are plenty of reliable commission merchants, and in all the large cities 
there are firms well known by reputation to all readers of poultry papers, to 
which the small shipper may send his goods with full confidence that he will 
be treated fairly, and receive every cent due him. Nearly always the large 
houses are glad to get even small shipments of first class stock, if they are 
sent regularly — irregular consignments they do not care so much about. In 
establishing relations with such houses, the best method is to send a sample 
shipment, at the same time stating the quantity that could be shipped 
regularly. The best time to begin doing business with these firms is when 
eggs are not very plentiful. Having eggs to ship when eggs are scarce is, in 
the eyes of the commission man, one of the best recommendations the shipper 
can have. He feels from the first that this man is to be depended on for 
regular shipments ; while he is always uncertain about those who are ready to 
begin when eggs are plenty, for his experience has been that in a very short 
time most of them fail him. 

275. When to Sell Poultry. — In producing poultry specially for 
market, one ought to aim to have as much as possible of the product market- 
able when prices are best, and to have eveiwthing sold before prices reach a 
point too low for profit. There is some demand for poultry throughout the 
year ; but the demand for chickens is so much lighter between August and 
February than during the remainder of the year, that the producer's profit, 
on stuff sold in the fall and early winter, (except on extra choice stock), is 
small. 

The broiler season is from February to September, prices being good 
throughout that period, and at their best in April and May. Many of the 
broilers shipped in September, October, and November, are put in cold stor- 
age and held until the beginning of the next season. The market for roasters 
is most active throughout December, January, and February ; but better prices 
are obtained in May, June, and July, when, though the demand is more 
limited, the supply is much more limited. Capons are in demand from 
December to May, inclusive, and bring best prices at the close of the season. 

The egg farmer marketing his cockerels and cull pullets, and the breeder 
of pure-bred poultry disposing of his culls, can hardly — if their chicks are 
seasonably hatched for their purposes — get the top prices for much of what 



POULTR T- CRA FT. 1 89 

poultry they have' to market, but still can get very good prices. One of the 
worst mistakes in marketing poultry is made by those who hold their stuff 
until cold weather, selling it about the holiday season, after having fed it sev- 
eral months longer, for less than it would have brought in July and August. 
That practice is a relic of a by-gone age is poultry culture. If it will not pay 
to caponize the cockerels they should be sold as well as possible while the 
prices are still fairly good. 

276. What the Market Wants, and What It Does Not Want. — 

" Now by Jirst class stock we mean well fatted, so that the breast bone does 
not stick out like the keel to a boat ; yellow mealed, well dressed, cleanly 
picked, not roughed all up or torn, no pin-feathers left in, 7tor the legs and 
feet left dirty. Such stock, if packed to present a neat and inviting appear- 
ance, will command good prices' nine or ten months in the year." 

" We call particular attention to the fact that our quotations are for first 
quality, quick grown, straight breasted, yelloxv meated, phtmp stock. 
Stunted chickens several months (too) old, hump-backed, white meated, and 
crooked breasted, are not wanted. We have very little call for such stock at 
any price * * * and the returns made for it will be discouraging to the 
shipper." (W. H. Rudd, Son & Co.'s circular). 

277. Sizes and Weights Preferred. — Broilers should weigh from 
one and one-fourth to two pounds each, the lighter weights being in demand 
from January to July, the heavier for the remainder of the year. Broilers 
weighing three-fourths of a pound each, called "squab broilers," have for 
some time been used in parts of Europe, to take the place of small game, and 
there is a growing, though still limited, demand for them in this country. 
They are in demand only through January, February, and the early part of 
March. Roasters range from five pounds per pair early in the season to ten 
and twelve pounds per pair in the fall and early winter ; quality being equal, 
the largest birds bring the best prices per pound. 

In capons birds weighing about six pounds each command readiest sale ; 
but larger birds, nine, ten pounds and more, bring better prices. 

Hens weighing four to five pounds each, sell better than either larger or 
smaller stock. 

N. B. — The above weights are all for dressed poultry. 

278. Selling Poultry Through Commission Merchants. — The large 
commission houses in the cities furnish shippers full instructions for dressing, 
packing, and shipping poultry to their market, and also keep large shippers 
informed of the fluctuations in prices and condition of the market. The 
requirements for different markets vary ; some cities use propoi-tionately 
much more live poultry than others ; capons bring relatively better prices 
in some cities than in others, etc. If a poultryman had located with reference 



j 90 PO UL TR r- CRAFT. 

to a particular market, he would, of course, have produced as nearly as he 
could to meet the demand in that market. When it is a question of one 
already located finding the best market, he needs to study markets thoroughly, 
and, perhaps, send trial shipments to several different places before he decides 
where to sell. Transportation facilities decide the shipping question for many 
producers. 

In shipping to commission houses, in the smaller cities, which do not 
furnish instructions to shippers ; and to provision dealers ; and in preparing 
poultry for special family or hotel trade, the local requirements of the leading 
markets in the vicinity should be observed. It is especially for this class of 
shippers that complete instructions for marketing are given here. 



279. Shipping Live Poultry. — Poultry of all kinds can be shipped 
alive during about half the year, from April to October, and, for short distance 
shipments, will net the shipper quite as much as if dressed. In fact, if he is 
inexpert in preparing fowls for market, good live fowls would bring him more 
than he would get for the same fowls, poorly dressed. Through the late fall 
and winter months, when dressed poultry is easily kept, live fowls are not 
much in demand. Commission men strictly warn their shippers against send- 
ing live fowls at winter holiday seasons, as at such times they have to be sold 
on the market for whatever they will bring, and may not realize enough to 
pay expenses of transportation and sale. 

Live fowls are shipped mostly by express, 
in slatted coops, each holding from one to 
two dozen grown fowls, and of chickens a 
> larger number, according to size. Over- 
crowding is to be avoided, both because of 
its inhumanity, and for economical reasons ; 
it is not right, and it does not pay. Crowded 
Fig. 80. Slatted Coop for Shipping Live fowls lose in weight, and also in quality of 

flesh. 




Poultry to Market. 



280. Dressing Poultry. — There are two methods of dressing poultry : 
dry picking, and scalding. The first is used generally in the east, and used 
everywhere in dressing poultry specially for the best trade in the eastern 
markets ; the second is used generally throughout the west and south, in prepar- 
ing poultry for the markets of those sections. A few dealers in some of the 
eastern cities will not receive scalded poultry at all. In some places it is hard to 
sell, but in most places, even when the dry picked stock is given preference, 
scalded stock of good quality finds ready sale at satisfactory prices. In western 
markets scalded stock sells best for the home trade ; yet the large commission 
houses prefer dry picked stock ; for, as a very large part of the poultry sent to 
market must be shipped east to find consumers, the dry picked stock can be 
handled to best advantage. 



POULTR T- CRA FT. 1 9 1 

281 . Fowls Must Fast Before Being Killed — that when killed the crop 
and intestines may be empty. No food should be given for at least twelve 
hours previous to killing, and a longer fast — eighteen to twenty-four hours — 
is desirable. 

282. The Killing is Done by Bleeding in the mouth or neck with a 
sharp knife. (Knives made specially for poultry killing can be procured). 
It used to be the practice to stun the bird by striking on the head or back with 
a stick before bleeding. This was discontinued because when stunned the 
birds did not always bleed properly. Bleeding in the mouth is the method 
most favored, because the cut is hidden, and thus the carcass is more sightly. 
As it is the more difficult way, one who is uncertain of his ability to do it 
right, should bleed in the neck the fowls he kills to sell until by practice on 
fowls to be used at home, he has, become expert in bleeding in the mouth. 

The method of making the cut, is thus described by Boyer : — 
"The bird's legs are fastened to a stout cord suspended from the ceiling, and a hogs- 
head or barrel is placed underneath to catch the blood and feathers. Then the operator 
gets in front of the bird, placing it under his left arm; * * runs the knife back in the 
mouth, and then bringing it a little forward, cuts crosswise, severing an artery. The 
mouth, during the operation, is held open with the fingers of the left hand. Great care 
is taken not to cut too much, for fear of the bird dying before the feathers are all 
removed, in which case it would be difficult to pick." 

All operators do not make the cut in the same way. Cooper says : 

" Make a sharp cut lengthxvise in the mouth, to make them bleed ; then a slot upwards, 
which penetrates the brain." 

McFetridge : 

" Have a weight, say two pounds, with hook attached, to fasten in the chicken's lower 
beak to keep the head steady, and over the barrel. With a sharp knife make a cut 
crossing at the base of the brain inside the mouth; then turn the knife blade and make 
a deep cut in the roof of the mouth into the brain." 

Novices can take their choice of these methods. Each will settle on that 
which comes handiest to him. 

283. Dry Picking. — In dry picking the feathers are removed while the 
bird is still alive (though paralyzed) . The success of picking by this method 
depends on removing all the feathers while the bird is bleeding-. In dressing 
broilers, the pin-feathers and stubs must be removed afterwards with the fingers 
and a small knife. When the bird is perfectly clean, the blood is washed from 
the mouth and throat, and the carcass is placed in cold water, to which a little 
salt has been added, and allowed to remain there for several hours, until 
thoroughly cooled. It is then taken from the water and hung up to dry before 
being packed. 

284. Scalding. — In scalding the success of the operation depends ©n 
having the water at the right temperature — as near boiling as it can be — and 
yet not boil, — and getting all the feathers to be removed thoroughly and 



192 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



quickly wet. If the water is not hot enough the feathers are not loosened, and 
are removed with difficulty ; if it is too hot, the skin is partly cooked, and the 
carcass when cold is blotched and discolored. The legs are dry picked before 
scalding. The bird, held by the legs and head, that the comb may not be 
discolored and the eyes shrunk by the scalding water — is plunged into the 
water several times (soused) that the water may thoroughly saturate the 
feathers. Then the feathers are removed as quickly as possible. When 
clean, the carcass is plumped by being plunged for a few seconds in very hot 
water, then, immediately in cold water. In warm weather it should be cooled 
as described for dry picked fowls, in water ; in cold weather it may be hung 
up to cool. 

285. A Few Important Points. — Whichever method is used, the 
appearance of the carcass is improved by scalding and skinning the feet. 

If the skin is torn in picking, it should be sewed up with common white 
thread. 

The general rule is to leave heads on and entrails in, but sometimes fowls 
shipped in cold weather are headed and drawn — except broilers, which are 
never sent to market drawn and headed. 

In dressing capons the feathers are left on the neck, tail, wings, and thighs. 

The object of cooling is to get the animal heat out of the body as quickly as 
possible. Putrefaction begins very early in a warm carcass. 

286. Packing Poultry for Shipment. — Poultry should be packed in 
boxes or barrels lined with paper, but should not be wrapped in paper ; nor 
should straw be used in the packing. The packing should be done in such 
manner that the carcasses will retain their shape, and will not shift in the 

package. The method of packing fowls is 
shown in Fig. Si. Some packers pack 
broilers also in this way ; others pack them 
with breasts down on the bottom layer, and 
up on the top layer. Commission men 
advise shippers to use boxes in preference to 
barrels for shipping poultry, and recommend 
using neat boxes of clean, planed lumber, 
uniform in size, because attractive packages 
sell better. Boxes should be made of five- 
eighths inch lumber, and made deep enough 
to contain two layers of carcasses. The dimensions of the boxes vary with 
the sizes of the fowls, and the number to be placed in each. As giving a 
general idea of the proportions to be observed : — one commission house rec- 
ommends using boxes S x 16 x 22 inches ; another, boxes 10 x 20 x 30 inches. 
Not more than one kind of poultry should be put in a package. The kind and 
weight of poultry in the package, and full shipping directions, should be 
marked on it. 




Fig 81. Method of Packing Fowls. 
(By courtesy of W. H. Rudd, Son & Co.) 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



[ 93 



287. Packing Iced Poultry in Warm Weather. — 

"Leave heads on and entrails in. Strong sound barrels (sugar barrels preferred) are 
best for ice packing, and the ice should be washed before using. Place a good layer of 
broken ice on the bottom of the barrel, then a layer of poultry, commencing in the middle 
and packing in a circle, with heads down, backs up, and feet toward the center; then 
alternate layers of ice and poultry, filling the barrel to within six inches of the top, taking 
care to have ice between the poultry and the staves of the barrel ; top off with large pieces 
of ice, and cover the barrel with bagging, (which insures its being kept right side up), 
and mark with brush or stencil. If shipped from any considerable distance, put an extra 
large piece of ice on top, and if properly packed, the poultry can be on the road fifty 
hours without injury; and if heavily iced and shipped in refrigerator car, can safely be 
four or five days in transit ; but even for short distances, it is better to use ice, as poultry, 
especially if not drawn, packed without it in warm weather, if only for an hour or two, 
will turn green across the back, and become almost worthless." ' "(W. H. Rudd, Son & 
Co.'s instructions to shippers). 

288. Shipping Dressed Poultry in Cold Weather. — In cold weather 
a great deal of dressed poultry is shipped by freight. Shippers are usually 
advised to send small lots going a considerable distance by express, especially 
if transfers are to be made en route, because under such conditions small lots 
are often delayed, and arrive in poor condition. The greater cost of transpor- 
tation by express is more than offset by the better returns received for the 
shipment. 

289. Hints on Selling Poultry and Eggs to Family Trade. — 

Establishing a Route. — A poultryman producing choice goods, can get 
better prices by selling direct to the best family trade than a provision dealer 
could get from the same people for the same goods. If located near enough 
to a large city or town to make regular deliveries, weekly or bi-weekly, one will 
often find it most profitable to retail his own produce. A good route is not 
established in a day. Into whatever territory one goes, he finds the field 
already partially occupied. He has to work for what trade he gets. The 
quality which most appeals to the largest number of consumers is cheapness. 
The only object a poultryman can have in selling direct to consumers, is to 
get the highest price obtainable. He finds some customers "ready made;" 
but while building up trade, his work is largely in the line of educating 
buyers' tastes to the point where the cheapness of eggs and poultry no longer 
appeals to them. This process takes time. The work of building up a 
good route of desirable customers whose requirements can be calculated to a 
nicety in advance, who buy freely and pay promptly, is not often completed 
in less than two or three years. 

Regtdar Deliveries cannot be profitably made oftener than twice a week 
when poultry products alone are handled ; nor is it to the interest of the pro- 
ducer to make them less often. Eggs a week old are too old for this class of 
trade. Tuesdays and Fridays — the days before baking-days — are the best 
for delivering eggs, — especially if one has more eggs than his established 
trade takes, and desires to extend his route. Most people — when they want 



1 94 POULTR T- CRA FT. 

poultry — want it on Saturday (for Sunday), but not nearly all want it every 
Saturday — and occasionally they like to vary things by using poultry in the 
middle of the week. A few customers will take poultry regularly twice a 
week the year round. A good arrangement is to deliver eggs on Friday, at 
the same time taking orders for poultry for both Saturday and Tuesdav 
delivery ; make a special delivery of poultry on Saturday ; and on Tuesday 
a regular delivery, covering the entire route, of eggs and poultry. 

Eggs may be packed in large shipping cases, and counted out as wanted, or 
put up in small pasteboard boxes made specially for this trade, and often used 
also by grocers. 

Poultry should be dressed the day before delivering. When cool it should 
be weighed, and a small tag with weight marked on it attached to each carcass. 
Each order may be separately wrapped in paper, or a covered box can be used 
for carrying poultry in the wagon, and the fowls delivered unwrapped. (This 
is the better way, for customers generally like to see their poultry when 
delivered, and it is easier to keep a damp cloth in the box, and if carcasses are 
at all soiled wipe them clean as taken out — than to handle them done up in 
paper) . 

Fowls should be killed only on order : — except that it is a good plan to have 
a few extra for possible new customers or for increased orders. Orders should 
be for so many fowls of definite weights, and fowls that will make these 
weights should be selected for killing. A fowl shrinks, according to size, 
about one-fourth to one-half, (or a little over), pound in dressing. 

Carcasses should be cooled as thoroughly as if for shipment, that if properly 
kept the meat may be at its best when used. It is coming to be better under- 
stood that fresh killed poultry lacks the flavor and delicacy of properly 
ripened poultry, and it is to the producer's interest to have the stuff at its 
best when eaten. 

All goods should be sold for cash on delivery, or cash on presentation of 
monthly bills. A poultry man cannot afford to do a credit business. 

Selling the Inferior Stock. — The poultry product is never entirely 
uniform in quality ; there is always some that cannot be sold to the best trade. 
The producer should aim to get proportionately as good a price for his poorer 
stock as for his good stock. He cannot afford to let it go for less than the 
best price obtainable. Paradoxical as the statement may seem, it is none the 
less true that, while a first class family trade must be built up by selling to 
that trade only good stock, no small part of the poultry man's profit depends 
on his success in selling his poorer stock. It is often said that anyone at all 
can sell good goods, but selling poor goods tests a salesman. 

To dispose of all his product to best advantage, the producer, while cater- 
ing specially to the best trade, must establish a sort of complementary trade 
that will take his inferior stock. This trade, by itself, would not be desirable 
or profitable, but as accessory to the other, it is worth a great many dollars 
in the course of a year. It does not injure the better trade in the least as 



POULTR T- CRAFT. i 95 

long as all poultry is sold for exactly what it is, and every transaction is open 
and above board. If one tries to work off poor stock at the price of good, 
or sells the same grade of stock at several prices — according to what buyers 
are willing to pay, trouble is sure to come of it. 



SELLING BREEDING STOCK AND EGGS FOR HATCHING. 

290. Advertising is the first step toward making sales of eggs or stock 
of pure bred poultry. Without advertising, only a few neighborhood sales 
can be made. Advertising in local newspapers does not often pay. The 
consensus 'of opinion among successful advertisers of poultry, is that adver- 
tising in other than poultry papers does not pay, though sometimes advertise- 
ments in agricultural papers with good poultry departments, bring good 
returns.* 

How Much to Spend in Advertising — is a perplexing question. It is 
sometimes said that an advertiser ought to be satisfied for some time if his 
sales from advertising are paying his advertising bills. Not many people, 
however, can long afford to pay out good money for advertising which does 
not result more substantially than that. If advertising is not bringing in sub- 
stantial returns, the advertiser who is in the business for a living must look 
for the reason, and find a remedy ; for there is no way in which money can 
be thrown away faster, and with less hope of its ever coming back again, than 
in advertising wrong. 

The first thing for a man to do when placing his advertising on a business 
basis, is to decide how much he can afford to spend for advertising. If he 
has income from other sources, it might pay him to spend for advertising in 
the first season 25%, or even 50%, of what he estimates his produce would 
bring if fairly well sold ; f but if he has no income other than from his poultry, 
he cannot afford to plan for an expenditure for advertising to exceed 10% of 
his most judicious estimate of sales resulting from advertising. The amount 
thus appropriated may seem small ; it is the more needful that it be invested 
wisely. Slow and sure is as good a rule now as it was when he began to 
build, and to buy and breed stock. 

The next step is to find out what poultry papers have the best circulation 

*Note. — Some vei-y notable exceptions to the statement that general advertising does 
not pay poultrymen, are worthy of mention. There are a few poultrymen who are both 
extensive breeders of and dealers in poultry at popular prices, and these use the leading 
magazines, and make it pay. 

tNoTE. — Even conservative methods of " counting chickens before they are hatched," 
are apt to result in excessive estimates. An expenditure for advertising of 50 per cent of 
estimated possible sales, would be likely to turn out 100 per cent of the actual sales; but 
if the advertising appropriation had been made on the basis of 100 per cent of estimated 
receipts, the poultryman would come out away behind. 



1 9 6 PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

in the territory in which one is located. It makes no difference to the adver- 
tiser where the paper is published. The circulation is what interests him, 
and circulation in territory adjacent to him is what he must value, for he 
cannot at first make more than an occasional sale of birds or eggs to be 
shipped to a distance. 

If it is decided to use a single .paper, the wisest move at this stage is to 
write the business manager of the paper, stating the amount available for 
advertising, and asking advice in placing the sum most advantageously. 
Managers of papers of standing and influence willingly give sound advice to 
advertisers regarding the kind of advertisement to be used, relative amounts 
of space to be used at different seasons of the year, etc. ; and the new 
advertiser is more likely to be satisfied in the end if he follows the suggestions 
given, than if he follows his own ideas. If advertising is to be placed in 
several papers, the same course should be taken for each as has been outlined 
for one. 

If having taken the advice given him, the advertiser does not get the returns 
he might reasonably expect, he ought not to find fault with the paper as an 
advertising medium, and change at once. The mere inseition of an advertise- 
ment in a good medium does not guarantee sales. There is art in advertising. 
An advertisement must attract attention. It is not enough to have for sale an 
article buyers want ; one must tell them so in language which attracts favorable 
notice, without in any way conveying a wrong impression of either the breeder 
or his stock. Often advertisers complain that their advertisements bring 
plenty of inquiries, but they make no sales. In that case the fault is usually 
with the advertiser ; either he has so worded an advertisement that it attracts 
a class of buyers whose orders he cannot fill, or he is unable to sell stock by 
correspondence. This last is the trouble with a great many who are unsuc- 
cessful advertisers. Some people can write letters that will drive custom 
away as fast as " ads." in a dozen papers bring it to them. 

In general, a well worded, well placed advertisement in any poultry paper 
having a good circulation in his section, will bring a breeder numerous letters 
of inquiry ; and, though he cannnot expect every inquiry to result in a sale, if 
he is prompt in attending to correspondence, writes a fair business letter, and 
has the stock to justify his advertising, he will get his share of orders. If 
results are unsatisfactory, he cannot justly find fault with the advertising 
medium used, unless he finds that its circulation has been misrepresented to 
him, or his advertisement has not been well placed. 

When more than one paper is used, advertisements should be " keyed," a 
little different address given in the advertisement in each paper. 

In addition to and in connection with his advertising in the poultry papers, 
a breeder of Standard stock should aim to exhibit at at least one poultry show 
each year. Advertising premiums won is a drawing card. Even though at 
first one may miss the premiums, as an exhibitor and regular attendant at 
shows, he has a better standing as a breeder than he would otherwise have. 



PO UL TR r- CRAFT. 1 97 

291. The Breeder's Stationery and Correspondence. — 

Circulars. — It is customary for breeders to issue circulars, describing their 
stock more fully than is possible in an advertisement or convenient in a letter, 
giving directions for ordering, prices, stating terms, etc. Such a circular is 
almost a necessity. A few well known breeders who sell stock of exceptional 
quality do not issue circulars, because sales of stock of that class cannot be 
made on general descriptions and general statements of prices. The breeder 
of ordinary stock who has any considerable amount of it to sell, and can fully 
inform possible purchasers of its merits without issuing a circular, is the 
exception — the thousandth man. The expense of printing from three to five 
hundred circulars (which will be enough for the small breeder to begin with), 
is small. If there is not a first class job printing office in the vicinity, it is 
better to send the work to one of the offices advertising poultrymen's printing 
as a specialty. 

Correspondence Paper and Envelopes should be of good quality, with neat 
letter heads and requests to return. Some breeders print their circulars on the 
backs of their letter paper, — or, write letters on the backs of their circulars. 
This does not look well, nor does it create a good impression. It is never 
possible to trace the sales due to neat stationery, but one can easily judge 
something of its influence by comparing the impressions made on himself by 
the receipt of letters and circulars of varying neatness and quality. The use 
of poor, unattractive stationery is the worst recommendation in the world for a 
poultryman whose work is supposed to demand in large measure the possession 
of genuine good taste. 

Circulars should be sent free to all applicants. Each year the custom of 
asking stamps for circulars falls more into disuse. It is not bad policy for a 
new advertiser to enclose with each circular sent in response to an application, 
a brief and courteous letter soliciting patronage. 

All correspondents should be promptly and courteously answered ; postal 
cards treated as respectfully as sealed letters. 

292. Terms of Sales — should be, cash with the order for mail trade ; 
cash on delivery for local trade. Exceptions should be made only in case of 
a customer well known to the breeder, and of whose ability and willingness 
to pay he is sure. A poultryman cannot afford to do a credit business. His 
business is carried on under such conditions that the common evils ol the 
credit system are many times increased, and general credit giving would break 
him in a very short time. A beginner whose stock is selling slowly is often 
tempted to give credit rather than lose a sale. If he does so, he is likely to 
regret it. If he cannot carry the stock he had better sell it as market poultry. 
Shipping poultry and eggs C. O. D., is quite as risky as crediting, for a 
customer cannot be compelled to take the goods, and if he refuses the shipper 
must stand transportation charges both ways, or lose the stock. 

293. Selling Stock. — Parts of the observations on buying stock and on 
prices of eggs and stock, in 1fno, 113 — 114, are so easily adapted to selling, 



198 PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

that their substance need not be repeated here. Those paragraphs should be 
re-read in connection with the following remarks, which are more specially 
pertinent to the new breeder as a seller of stock. 

The beginner, generally, is a poor judge of stock — though generally he does , 
not thus think of himself. He can make broad distinctions between his best 
and his worst, but when it comes to accurately placing values on his mediocre 
stock, he is most apt to make mistakes, and in consequence make some bad 
blunders in filling orders. Mistakes due to ignorance are often aggravated by 
one's carelessness — pricing or shipping stock without carefully examining it; 
sometimes catching birds in the dark, and cooping them almost without 
looking at them, — filling orders by-the catch-as-catch-can method. If one is 
frank and straightforward with his customer, such blunders are easily rectified 
without injury to either party, and without ill-feeling on either side. 

Some breeders prefer to have their stock scored, and sell by the score. It 
is questionable whether there is any real advantage in this. Private scoring is 
so open to abuses that private scores are generally discredited. The full 
responsibility of filling orders educates a seller in values more quickly than 
anything else. 

One of the most serious mistakes of beginners is selling their best birds. 
A breeder — no matter how low down. in the ranks — ought never to sell, his 
best birds, unless he is sure he can replace as many as he needs of them for 
less money than these bring him. If he does not keep a little in advance of 
his customers, he cannot long hold their trade. 

Nearly all new breeders carry too many low class males through the 
winter. Males of the quality sold for crossing or grading rarely bring over 
$1.50 to $2 each. At such prices it does not pay to carry them until the 
beginning of the breeding season, when they will be in demand. Some old 
breeders say that it does not pay to winter a male that cannot be sold in the 
spring for $5. The new breeder cannot place his limit quite as high as that, 
for he cannot at any time get the prices the older breeders get ; but if he will 
make it a rule to keep over no male which he cannot sell for $2.50 or $3, 
one of the worst leaks in his business will be stopped. Pullets of like inferior 
quality can be made to pay their way. 

An unknown breeder cannot expect to get the prices a breeder of wide 
reputation gets for stock of the same quality, as far as appearances show. 
At the same time, he ought not to make the mistake of cheapening his stock 
and himself by offering goods for less than the ordinary small breeder 
gets for similar stock. At first glance it would appear that if one cannot 
dispose of most of his eggs for hatching at $2 or $1.50 per sitting, it is better 
to sell for 75 cents or even 50 cents, than to eat them ; or if he cannot get $3 
or $2 for birds well worth those prices, it is better to let them go at $1 for 
breeding, than at 50 cents as poultry. Every clime saved this way is a dollar 
lost in future sales. The beginner who has good stock should keep his prices 
at a fair medium. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



199 



Orders should be promptly acknowledged, and also promptly filled. 

Every customer should be given good value for his money. It is better to 
err a little on the side of good measure than to give scant value ; but, even in 
giving good measure, it is best not to go too far — you cannot afford it. 

In quoting prices stock should be honestly described, and faults as well as 
excellencies mentioned : they are equally important to the breeder, and it is 
only fair to the customer who cannot personally examine birds before order- 
ing. The breeder who does this, competing with those who do not accurately 
describe their stock, is sure to lose some sales. It is much better to have a 
correspondent buy of the other fellow and wish he had bought of you, than 
buy of you and wish he had placed his order elsewhere. 

In selling stock on approval, the usual understanding is that jt may be 
returned if not as represented; that is, if it does not answer the description 
given, and the buyer can faily claim he has not been sent what he ordered. 
Sometimes the special arrangement is that if the stock does not suit the 
purchaser it may be returned. 



294. Shipping High Class Fowls. — Breeding and exhibition fowls are 
shipped by express in light coops made of wood, or of wood and canvas. 





Fig. 82, Box Coop for Shipping Thoroughbred 
Fowls. 



Fig. 83. Coop for Shipping Fowls to Exhibi- 
tion. Same Coop with ordinary Slat Top is often 
used for Shipping Fowls to Customers. 
(By courtesy of F. L. Sewell). 



If properly cooped, and provided with food and a cup for water, they can be 
safely shipped any distance. Expressmen feed and water fancy fowls in 
transit. Some of the companies are very strict in their requirements in this 
matter, obliging their employees to mark the fact and time of each feeding on 
the shipping bill. For fowls in all wood coops, and in coops of wood and 
canvas, so constructed that were the canvas removed the fowls would still be 
securely confined, the express rate is the regular merchandise rate, known as 
the "first class" rate. For fowls in canvas covered coops, so constructed 
that the canvas is required to confine them, the express rate is " double first 
class," just twice as much as in the other style of coop. Figs. 82 — 83 show 



2oo PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

styles of coops commonly used. All wood coops can be bought in knock 
down bundles, ready to nail together. In making the slat coops with canvas 
lining lath, empty grocery boxes of light wood and cheap muslin can be used,, 
and the cash cost of a coop for four or five fowls need not exceed fifteen cents. 
If many coops are needed, it is better to buy new lumber, which can easily be 
cut to the dimensions required, than to take the time to work up scrappy stuff. 

A little chopped straw or hay, or some chaff, should be placed in the bottom 
of the coop. Before the fowls are placed in it their legs should be cleaned, 
and combs, wattles, and faces wiped clean of dust and soot, and rubbed with 
vaseline, which not only brings out the color of the comb, but protects the 
parts treated from the cold, and prevents swelling and puffing of the face 
should the birds be exposed to a draft. The breeder should be very particular 
that no lousy bird is shipped from his yards, and if lice have been giving him 
trouble, should coop the birds — in exhibition coops — for some days before 
shipping, and treat for lice. The top of the coop, whether in one piece or 
in several, should be so securely nailed that the coop can be lifted by any one 
slat. Coops are not supposed to be lifted that way, but the precaution is a 
wise one, none the less. 

A bag containing sufficient grain for the fowls for the journey, should be 
tied to the coop in such a way that the grain can be easily got at. A few 
pieces of bone with some meat adhering to them, and a large piece of mangel 
wurzel put in the coop before nailing the slats down, help to keep the fowls 
contented. The drinking cup should be fastened in one corner, high enough 
up to prevent it being filled with dirt from the bottom of the coop, and in such 
position that water can be poured into it through the space between the slat 
and the side of the coop. The address of the consignee, very plainly written 
on a tag, should be affixed to the coop, and unless the tag bears the shipper's 
name he should tack one of his cards conspicuously on the coop. 

The purchaser should be notified of the shipment of his birds — time of 
leaving, and by what express — even though previously informed of the date 
when shipment would be made. 

If the shipper desires the coop returned to him he should so state when 
sending notice of shipment, and should enclose ten cents for return charges, 
which must be prepaid on " empties." 

295. Selling Eggs for Hatching — is, in general, considered less 
satisfactory to both buyer and seller than dealings in fowls. Still, while 
there are a few who do not sell eggs for hatching, the vast majority do sell 
them, either because it is the general custom, or because they make it pay. 
and think that on the whole the advantages of that method of selling pure 
bred stock more than compensate for its drawbacks. 

Advertisements of eggs for hatching should be started in January — 
certainly not later than February. Few high priced eggs are shipped 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 201 

while there is danger of their being chilled in transit, but intending buyers 
begin making inquiries early, and many orders are placed in January and 
February for March and April delivery. 

As with fowls, the price should not be put too low. If the stock is of 
quality to justify the price, a breeder is quite likely to sell as many eggs at 
$2 as at a lower price, and sell to a better class of customers, better informed 
of the ups and downs of buying eggs for hatching, and consequently more 
reasonable and more agreeable to deal with. Nearly all breeders make reduc- 
tions in- prices for several sittings ordered at one time. This one can well 
afford to do, for the work of selling and handling one sitting costs quite as 
much as for two or three. 

It is quite a common practice to reduce the price of eggs for hatching late 
in the season. Those who do this think the eggs, while worth less than 
earlier in the season, are still well worth the price asked for them, and that 
the reduction extends their trade and the general interest in pure bred poultry 
by giving an opportunity to those least able to buy to start with good stock. 
Those who hold to one uniform price throughout the season, think it, in the 
long run, to their own best interest, and for the good of the varieties they 
breed, not to encourage people to hatch late chicks from stock more or less 
debilitated by a season's producing. 

The practice in regard to guaranteeing hatches, is divided. The breeder's 
usual guaranty is that the eggs shipped are true to name, from the stock 
described in his advertisements and circular, fresh, and running high in 
fertility ; — just such eggs as he sets to hatch his own stock ; carefully packed 
and delivered to the express company in good condition. Not many breeders 
guarantee more than this. All honest breeders, however, replace eggs if their 
own hatches and general reports of customers indicate that their stock is not 
breeding right. Some guarantee six, seven, nine, or ten chicks from each 
sitting of eggs ; some replace eggs that gave poor hatches at half-price, and 
duplicate very poor hatches and total failures free. If a breeder has fulfilled 
the conditions of such a guaranty as is outlined above, he is under no obliga- 
tion to do more, for a good hatch depends on too many contingencies altogether 
beyond his control 

296. Packing and Shipping Eggs for Hatching. — Eggs are shipped 
by express, always. Small lots of one, two, or three sittings, are packed in 
baskets specially made in various sizes for this purpose, or in common splint 
baskets, or in fruit (grape) baskets. Often a shipper can get other baskets 
more conveniently and at less cost than the special egg baskets, and many 
prefer them, irrespective of cost. With the regular egg baskets, pasteboard 
boxes having compartments for each egg are used. In packing, a little chaff, 
or fine excelsior is first put in the bottom of each compartment, then the eggs 
are put in, small end down ; the spaces around them filled up with chaff, and 
the cover of the box securely tied. Excelsior is packed under, around, and 



202 PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

over those boxes when placed in the baskets ; then the basket covers are very 
securely tied with strong twine. The covers furnished with the baskets have 
printed on them the notice, "Eggs for Hatching — Handle with car'e" 
The consignee's name and address, plainly written, should be placed on a tag 
attached to the handle of the basket. 

In using the ordinary oblong, flat bottomed, splint baskets, a mat of excelsior 
from one to two inches thick, is spread evenly in the bottom of the basket ; 
similar mats are placed around the sides ; then the eggs, each carefully 
wrapped in newspaper, or in a wisp of excelsior, are packed in close, and the 
interstices filled with excelsior. If more than one layer of eggs is put in a 
basket, a thin mat of excelsior should be placed between layers. When all 
the eggs are in, cover them with excelsior to the thickness of several inches ; 
sew on a cover of muslin, drawing it tight over the excelsior, and sewing to 
the edges of the basket. Paste on this cover a printed label with description 
of contents, and warning against rough handling, address and tag, as above. 

To pack in grape baskets, use either excelsior, chaff, or cut hay ; wrap eggs 
in paper or excelsior, and pack as firmly as possible without crowding too 
much. (The secret of packing eggs to go safely, is to have the package firm 
enough to prevent shifting, yet elastic enough to protect the eggs from jolts and 
jarring). The bottom, sides, and cover of a grape basket being much 
stronger than of the common splint basket, less packing material is needed 
between the eggs and the sides of the basket. Tie the cover on strongly, and 
label and tag as directed above. If a breeder will save his empty fruit baskets 
each year, and ask a few of his neighbors to do the same, he can get baskets 
for several hundred sittings of eggs at no cost beyond the trouble of collecting 
and storing- them. 




PO UL TR T- CRAFT. io% 



CHAPTER XII!. 



Exhibiting Poultry. 

297. The Business Breeder Should Be an Exhibitor. — The educa- 
tional and advertising advantages which a breeder may get from poultry 
shows, have been mentioned more than once in preceding pages. There is 
another and a stronger reason why every business breeder of thoroughbred 
fowls ought to do all that he can do in reason to make a poultry show in his 
section a success and a permanent thing. A live poultry show extends the 
interest in poultry as few other agencies do — increasing the demand for the 
poultryman's goods, and thus affording a better market for what he has to 
sell. In this way the show benefits him, though he shows and fails to win, 
and even though he does not show at all. (If he never goes near the show, 
he still is indirectly benefited by it). 

The breeders' duty on this point is, when the matter is looked at in the right 
light, clear. Poultry associations are not money making affairs. Those who 
promote them often have to go down in their own pockets to pay deficits. It 
does not often happen that there is a balance on hand when the bills are paid. 
With the simple fancier, maintaining a local poultry show is only a matter of 
pride; with the breeder it is a matter of profit as well. While he ought not 
to put himself in a position where the support of a show would fall too heavily 
on him, he is much at fault if he allows the benefits, direct and indirect, which 
a live show gives him, to be withdrawn or reduced for lack of his support. 
Where the interest in poultry is already strong, the support of one breeder 
does not often matter greatly ; but in the many sections where the pure bred 
poultry industry is still in its infancy, the support of one breeder may mean 
a great deal to a show. 

A fancier to whom poultry breeding is recreation, the competition of the 
show room "sport," is not in any way under obligation to support shows 
unless he chooses to make such obligation his. The breeder, as a business 
man, owes it to himself, to those dependent on him, to his community, — to 
all interested in his success or affected by his failure. — to use every means in 
his power to make the business successful. Of aids to the breeders' success, 
there are not many more efficient than a live nearby poultry show. 

298. General Care of Exhibition Stock. — The general preparation of 
birds bred specially for exhibition, begins from the time when they leave the 
shell. The chicks are given every opportunity to make the best development 
of which they are capable. Nothing that would hurt them is permitted ; 



204 PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

nothing which will help them neglected. They are not handled in a 
specifically different way from other good stock, well cared for. It is 
only that the breeder uses every means to assure the best development, and 
does not resort to the narrow balancing of cost and profit which must be 
followed in rearing lower priced poultry. That one way which is better than 
others, he follows regardless of trouble ; that food which gives best results, he 
uses regardless of cost. 

299. Special Selection of Specimens for a Particular Show — should 
be made about two months before that show occurs. The birds on which the 
breeder has had his eye, looking at them as possible winners, ought then to be 
separated from the rest, and thoroughly inspected in every section to see just 
what shape they are in, and what individual treatment each requires to put it 
in the best possible condition for the show room. 

The novice in exhibiting is apt to rely too much on the general appearance 
of the fowl. The veteran exhibitor never takes a bird at his face value as he 
runs in the yard or stands in the coop. As soon as the specimen is in his 
hands he makes a thorough search for hidden defects and faults only found by 
close inspection. A bird having bad faults which cannot be remedied, is 
rejected ; blemishes which can be removed by legitimate means, are coiTected. 
In selecting specimens for the show room, it is looks that count; looks count 
for everything. Blemishes which might be passed over in a breeding bird are 
inadmissible in a show bird. The smallest positive disqualification immediately 
throws it out of the category of exhibition birds. As disqualifications are 
distinctly specified in the Standard, there is little excuse for even the greenest 
exhibitor entering a bird which will be debarred from competition. One has 
simply to take each bird in hand, and with a list of disqualifications before 
him, make sure that the specimen is free from each and every one of them. 

The selecting process must proceed still further. Not every bird that is 
free from disqualifications is capable of winning, even in weak competition. 
A bird that is very faulty in several sections has little chance of winning. 
The all around good bird is the exhibitor's reliance. Once in a long time a 
bird is found fit to go from the yard to the show room (and in that case the 
exhibitor's effort is directed to preventing injury, and keeping it in good 
condition), but in most cases a great deal needs to be done before the bird is 
ready to show. To show to advantage, birds must be in perfect condition,, 
and must have been so handled that they are not " coop shy," are not disturbed 
by the inspection of visitors or the handling of the judges, but will pose and 
show themselves to best advantage. 

300. While Being Prepared for Showing — fowls are best kept in 
small pens, in which they are easily caught and handled. If there is no such 
provision for them, they may be kept for a few days in exhibition coops, then 
in the pen with yard, then in the coop again, etc. — the object being to have 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



205 



them easy to get at when it is necessary to handle them, to accustom them 
to being handled, and at the same time not keep them too closely confined. 
No males should be allowed to run with females which are to be exhibited, 
nor should two males be allowed to get together. Extraordinary precautions 
must be taken to keep males from fighting, or a good bird may easily be 
spoiled for showing, and weeks of painstaking work gone for nothing. 

301. Care of the Plumage. — One of the first things to be done in fitting 
the specimen is to pluck out all broken, stained, and foul* feathers, that new 
ones may grow out in their places. Old birds need to be very carefully looked 
over for dead stubs of feathers that failed to moult out. The backs of hens 
often contain feathers broken by the feet of the male ; and there are nearly 
always some worn and broken feathers on the feet of Asiatics. 

The plumage can be cleaned and polished by compelling the birds to 
exercise in clean straw, and by furnishing a dust bath containing a liberal 
proportion of clean fine sand. The plumage of white fowls, if not made 
clean enough by these means, can be washed. 

" Washing Show Birds. — Use Pear's or Ivory soap, as soap with rosin in it will ruin all 
chances of a successful washing. Thoroughly soap and lather to the skin, and leave it 
on long enough to cut all dirt, or any gummy or adhering substance in the plumage. 
Then remove to a second tub of clean lukewarm water, deep enough to submerge the fowls, 
and by gently rubbing with a large sponge with the feathers, remove every bit of soap. 
Then shake the plumage in the water thoroughly, and rub it to the usual "smooth condi- 
tion. At last plunge in a tub of cold water that has been blued as the housewife blues the 
water for the linen in her wash. By gentle manipulation of the plumage thoroughly rinse 
it with this blue water, and take the bird out into a wire bottom dripping cage, allowing 
the specimen himself to shake the water out, and then he may be removed to either of 
two rooms. 

" Now the best in the world is a room the floor of which is covered four inches deep 
with sea beach sand, and the atmosphere heated to 100 degrees, having been warm 
long enough to heat the sand to 100 degrees. Then allow the room to cool to 70 degrees 



* Note. — If false colored feathers grow in off-color again, they must be again removed 
if the bird is to be exhibited. Their removal is wrong, in that poultry associations have a 
rule prohibiting it. Like all rules and laws, this is effective only as far as it can be 
enforced — and can be enforced only when infringements are detected, and public opinion 
sustains those who attempt to enforce the law. The removal of a few feathers from the 
soft plumage of a fowl could only be detected after a most searching examination. If there 
were a disposition to enforce the rule, the removal of foul feathers could only be proved 
in the case of one caught in the act by some one uitercsted in furnishing such proof. 
Notwithstanding the rule, the plucking of a few foul feathers will never be regarded, by 
those who know how rarely birds are produced without them, as a flagrant sin. Indeed, 
the more general opinion is that it is the rule that is wrong — in not making sensible 
exceptions, — and that the practice is justifiable, if not absolutely right. Inasmuch as 
feather plucking is done openly and universally, it does not really constitute a deception 
except on those who wish to feel themselves deceived. The matter is one that causes new 
exhibitors a great deal of concern. Unless one can satisfy himself that "plucking" is 
excusable, he will feel more comfortable if he leaves his birds at home. 



206 POUL TR T- CRA FT. 

at the height of a man's waist. This will cause the heat to rise from the sand, and the 
fowls will, with the water in the plumage, secure a steam or Turkish bath that will make 
the plumage spread out to its fullest extent, and be immaculately white. 

" Or, put the bird in a cage with a wire bottom and cut straw that is absolutely clean, 
and set this cage over a register so as to heat the sti*aw to ioo degrees in a room of 70 
degrees ; and in this let the bird steam dry. When washing brush the black dirt out 
from under the scales of the legs and toes, as one cleans one's finger nails." [I. K. Felch, 
in Reliable Poultry Journal.'] 

If a bird does not carry its wings right ; if the tail is too fan-like, or too 
pinched ; if the sickles do not set right ; if anything of this kind is wrong, it 
can and should be made right by frequently stroking, shaping, and manipu- 
lating the feathers with the hands, until at last they take proper positions. 

302. Care of the Head. — If a comb does not set quite right, it can often 
be adjusted by a little manipulation with the fingers. The comb of a Leghorn 
hen that does not lop nicely can be formed in a very short time to shape just 
as desired, and zvill stay that way through the show and afterwards. The 
comb of a male that does not stand true, or bulges over the beak, can be very 
much improved by simply working it as near what it should be as possible 
with the fingers. The wattles, too, yield to treatment ; — and all such methods 
are perfectly legitimate. 

Just previous to the show the head, comb, and wattles should be sponged 
clean, to free them from dirt and dandruff, then rubbed (not smeared) with 
vaseline. 

303. Care of the Feet.- — If the feet are at all scaly, the thing first in 
order is to get rid of the parasites, (If 315) ; afterwards the shanks and toes 
can be well rubbed with vaseline or olive oil. A sound foot once lost can 
never be restored, but if the bird is otherwise good, and the company he is 
going into not too hot, it is worth while to put the bad feet in condition — they 
ought to be taken care of, whether the bird is to be shown or not. 

304. The Food Previous to Exhibition need not vary from the regular 
diet, unless it is necessary to force a fowl to bring it up to weight. If a fowl 
in good condition is much short in weight, forcing is very likely to impair 
its future usefulness in the breeding pen. If the fowl is in poor condition, 
judicious heavy feeding will do it good, aside from increasing its chances of 
winning. For rapid forcing Felch recommends a diet of whole corn, grit, 
and raw beef. On this diet, he states, from seven to fourteen ounces can be 
put on a bird in a week. Some breeders use bread and milk and sugar for 
forcing. 

A few exhibitors make a practice — and it is surely a good one — of feeding 
the birds to be exhibited, for some days prior to sending them to a show, on a 
diet as nearly as possible like what they will get at the show. Thus the birds 
are not subjected to an abrupt change of diet as well as of other conditions 
when sent to the show room. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



207 



305. Leg Bands are nearly always needed. A few shows do not allow 
them. It depends on the systems of cooping and judging used. The show 
premium list furnishes explicit instructions. If bands are used, they ought to 
be removed when the birds return. The feet are often badly hurt by bands 
left on too lonsf. 



306. Exhibition Coops. — When the show association furnishes coops, 

the birds may be shipped in common 
shipping coops, illustrated in Figs. 
82 — S3. When the exhibitor is 
required to furnish his own coops, 
combined shipping and exhibition 
coops (see Fig. 84), should be used. 
Often the associations suggest certain 
sizes of coops, that the display may be 
more uniform, and neater in appear- 
ance. If the dimensions of the coop 
are left to the exhibitor, he ought 
always to be sure to give his birds 
plenty of room, and never make the 
mistake of sending birds in a low coop. The dimensions of the coop illus- 
trated are : height, 30 in. ; width, 30 in. ; depth, 2^ in. Whether birds are 
sent in a shipping or in a shipping-exhibition coop, a neat, clean coop should 
be used. It is not at all creditable to a breeder to send out his fowls in a 
rough, dirty coop. 

In shipping exhibition birds which are to be returned to the same owner, it 
makes no difference in cost of transportation which style of shipping coop is 
used. If birds are sent in a coop that takes them at single rate, the express 
companies charge for returning them ; if they go at double rate, they are 
returned free. 




Fig. 84. A Combined Exhibition and Shipping Coop. 



307. Ought an Exhibitor to Accompany His Birds ? — It is better that 
he should, but it is not really necessary. Many poultry men will not show 
unless they can go with their birds. It is, of course, a matter in which each 
must judge for himself. If all followed that course many persons would be 
unable to exhibit, and there would be fewer and poorer shows. The absent 
exhibitor's stock is not always looked after as he would look after it himself. 
On the whole, however, it is pretty carefully handled. 



308. After the Show — the returned fowls should be kept quiet, and fed 
rather light for a few days. It frequently happens that fowls coming out of 
a winter show strike weather much colder than any they had experienced 
before going into it — weather so severe that the change from the warm show 



20S 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



room to any ordinary poultry house would be too great for safety. In that 
case it is better to keep them in the coops, and- the coops in a warm place for 
a day or two. 

309. Exhibiting Dressed Poultry and Eggs. — Though there are, as 
yet, only a few poultry shows having dressed poultry and egg departments, it 
is probable that, before long, practical exhibits will be a feature of every show 
room. Fowls are dressed for exhibition in exactly the same way as for market. 
A poultry man who has fine market poultry to sell cannot advertise it better 
than by exhibiting some of his best. A breeder whose fancy stock possesses 
good practical qualities, finds it well worth while to make a reputation as an 
exhibitor of dressed poultry and " most fancy fresh" eggs. Eggs packed in 
small lots for exhibition go best in such boxes or baskets as are used for 
packing hatching eggs. In making an exhibit of a dozen eggs, it is advisable 
to use, if possible, eggs laid by one hen.: 




PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



509 



CHAPTER XIV 



Diseases, Parasites, and Enemies of Fowls. 

310. The Unprofitableness of Doctoring. — To succeed in "doctoring" 
a stubborn case of sickness or a persistent epidemic in his flock, is one of the 
worst misfortunes that can befall a poultry keeper. It puts him on a wrono- 
course — his stock on a bad footing. It gets him into the habit of fussing 
with and dosing his birds, and, in consequence, his place is soon stocked with 
fowls of enfeebled constitutions, predisposed to disease. The greater one's 
success in treating well developed disease the more sick fowls he will have. 

Still, the poultryman needs to know enough of the symptoms of different 
diseases to be able to detect each at an early stage ; enough of the causes of 
particular diseases to enable him to take efficient preventive measures for the 
well fowls when sickness does appear in his flock ; and something of the modes 
and effects of using the simple remedies which, if used in time, will often 
check a disease before it has reached a danger point. He needs to learn in 
which diseases (and at what stages) it will pay — both immediately and in 
the long run — to use drugs, and when it is best to resort to the hatchet and 
the spade ; and he needs to get firm hold of the fact that when once disease 
has become established in a flock, a good sharp hatchet, vigorously used, will 
do more for him than all the medical knowledge and all the drugs in the world. 

On the whole, diseases of fowls closely resemble human diseases. No doubt 
they are in many cases identical. If" correctly diagnosed a case of sickness in 
the poultry yard can often be identified as like some common human malady, 
and may be successfully treated in the same way. This is a good thino- to 
remember, because in an emergency orte may have in the house a "family" 
remedy which will be effective if immediately applied to a sick fowl, while if 
no remedy were given until a regular poultry medicine could be obtained, the 
fowl would be lost. A considerable proportion of the cases of sickness in the 
fowl yard yield to very simple treatment if taken in time; the great trouble is 
that they are not observed soon enough, or there is nothing at hand to give the 
sick bird. It is possible to cure many bad cases ; but — the life of a well fowl 
is not as a rule worth much in dollars and cents, and the life of a sick fowl is 
worth so much less that a poultryman ought not to begin a course of doctorino- 
when circumstances call for individual treatment for many fowls, or for a long 
course of treatment for one or several individual birds. It is not only the cost 
of the medicines and the value of the time spent in administering them, and 



2 io POULTR T- CRAFT. 

in giving the fowl the special care demanded by its condition, that have to be 
taken into account. The cost of feeding and housing and caring for the con- 
valesced fowl until again productive, must be reckoned up against doctoring. 
When to this is added the well established fact that a fowl once dangerouslv 
sick with an organic disease is afterwards worse than worthless* as a breeder, 
the poultry keeper should have no difficulty in making his estimate of the ins 
and outs of physicking fowls show that unless an epidemic is so mild that it 
3 T ields readily to simple remedies, applied in the ordinary food and drink, and 
corrected sanitary conditions; — or an individual case not yet past the stage 
when a very few treatments could be expected to prove effective, it is better to 
kill than to try to cure. 

311. Some General Rules for Preventing Diseases. 

(i). By good care — with all that that includes : correct sanitary conditions, 
good houses, well sunned, aired or closed, according to weather and tempera- 
ture ; proper food, exercise, cleanliness. 

(2). By quarantining all new fowls as long as there is danger of then- 
contracting diseases from or transmitting them to old stock. 

This is a matter of very great importance. The germs of some diseases to 
which acclimated fowls have been immune often infect unacclimated fowls, 
which are for the time less able to resist, and having thus gained a foothold 
will successfully attack the acclimated fowls. The contrary also often happens. 
The new fowls bring with them the germs of disease which in their old home 
they had successfully resisted, but to which they now succumb, and if the 
breeder is at all careless the whole stock may be affected. 

(3). Bv preventing fowls from outside flocks from coming in contact with 
members of the flock, or even feeding on the same ground. Pigeons, also, 
should be kept away ; they are the worst disease mongers of all domestic birds. 

(4). By promptly caring for fowls which seem the least indisposed, and 
connecting wrong conditions as soon as their effects are noted. Too often such 
measures are neglected until disease has positively developed. 

* Note. — Such fowls are -worse than -worthless as breeders, because there is born in 
their offspring a strong tendency to contract the same disease at the age at which the 
parents had it. It happens so often as to justify saying that it is the rule, that among 
the offspring of fowls recovered from a severe attack of diphtheritic roup, that disease 
will become epidemic, when the offspring of fowls which had never had the disease are 
not at all affected, though kept under the same conditions, and sometimes in the same 
house, unless the disease is literally forced on them by constant contact with sick fowls. 
The loss of a single bird is at most a loss of only a few dollars. An outbreak of disease 
among the descendants of a fowl debilitated by that disease, may cause a loss of hundreds 
of dollars, for under such circumstances the disease is apt to be so virulent, its course so 
rapid, that such treatment as would ordinarily succeed in the early stages oi the malady, 
proves ineffective. 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 2 1 1 

Entire prevention of disease is not possible when any considerable stock of 
poultry is kept ; nor is it continuously possible under any conditions. In a 
small flock of fowls, healthy and well cared for, one, two or three seasons may 
pass without a sick fowl, even though the rate of loss, as finally determined is 
greater than in a large stock in which there are deaths every month in the 
year. There ai"e people who claim to breed poultry on quite an extensive 
scale without losses from disease ; but such statements are not credited by per- 
sons who have had experience in handling fowls in large numbers. 

312. Hints to Guide in the Diagnosis of the Ailments of Fowls. — 

The common diseases of poultry, their causes, symptoms and simplest remedies, 
are given in the next paragraph. The hints given in this are to help the 
reader to go as quickly as possible to the information he needs. Such hints 
cannot be infallible, but will be found right in the great majority of cases. 

When a fowl sneezes, waters slightly at the nostrils and eyes, the face puffs 
up — any or all of these symptoms indicate a comnion cold. 

When it rattles in the throat, it has a cold zuith bronchitis. 

When it experiences great difficulty in breathing, it has, probably, pneumonia. 

When cankers form in the mouth and throat, it has diphtheria or diphthe- 
ritic roup. 

When discharges from the nostrils are profuse and ill-smellino-, it has 
co??imon roup, influenza. Looseness of the bowels accompanies many dis- 
eases, and if there are symptoms indictating the presence of another disease 
(not intestinal), that should be treated first. 

Looseness of the bowels, the feathers around the vent smeared and gummed 
with the discharges, is diarrhoea. 

A bloody diarrhoea may be either dysentery or enteritis. 

Greenish discharges, turning to frothy white, are given as a symptom of 
cholera; but greenish yellow, frothy white discharges frequently accompany 
roup, and are often found under such conditions that it is impossible to 
suppose cholera. 

A dark purplish comb and face, generally ruffled appearance, and brownish, 
watery discharge, indicate congestion of the liver. 

Symptoms as above, but more pronounced, and with yellowish discharges, 
indicate that the disease has developed into inflammation of the liver. 

Small hard lumps under the skin of the face, occur in roup. 

Ulcers about the head and face are generally chicken pox. 

A yellowish looking head and face, indicate general debility, ancetnia, or 
consumption. 

General listlessness without symptoms of specific disease, indicates 
indigestion. 

Lameness is generally the result of an accident, or of rheumatism. 

Twisting of the head and neck is due to cramps, rheumatism, giddiness. 

Jerking o£the head is due to pressure of blood on the brain, that is, to head- 
ache. 



2i2 POULTRY- CRAFT. 

Fowls dying suddenly had apoplexy ; heart failure; choked. Many so- 
called sudden deaths are sudden only because the keeper failed to note plain 
symptoms. 

313. Diseases of Poultry. — In the following list of diseases no special 
effort has been made to have descriptions and terms technically correct. The 
object is to describe the diseases for those who have neither time nor inclination 
to give such matters more study than is required to learn when to physic and 
when to kill. Those who wish to look into the subject more fully, or who 
prefer to doctor whenever a cure is possible, should get a more extended work 
on poultry diseases. Neither space nor the plan of this book would admit full 
descriptions here. 

Ancemia, — a condition of the blood, poor blood, due generally to lack of proper food, 
fresh air, or sunshine. Remedied by correcting conditions. 

Apoplexy, — rush of blood to the head, caused by over-eating, violent exercise, fright, 
extreme heat; rarely observed until the victim is too far gone for treatment. Bleed from 
vein in under side of wing; if possible, give two drops of croton oil. 

Bowel Trouble — see Diarrhoea; also II 261. 

Break Down Behind — if simply due to over-fat, may be remedied by putting hen on 
light diet; if the disorder is due to derangement of the oviduct, it is generally incurable. 

Broken Bones — easily treated if the break is in the shank; put on light splints, and 
wrap firmly. If the break is anywhere else, the fowl should be killed. 

Bronchitis — a catarrh, a bad cold accompanied by coughing or rattling in the throat : 
give aconite, as for a cold ; or use any convenient remedy suitable for coughs and colds. 

Bumble-foot — an abscess on the sole of the foot, caused by bruising by jumping from 
the roost : treatment, if taken early, wash with strong vinegar, and apply tincture of 
cocaine; if the abscess is well. developed, open by making two cuts, crossing thus, X; 
wash out all matter with warm water containing carbolic acid ; apply nitrate of silver, 
ten grains to one ounce of distilled water. 

Canker — see Roup. 

Chicken Pox — small ulcers on the head and face : wash with carbolic soapsuds ; anoint 
with vaseline or fresh lard. 

Cholera — a contagious disease of the bowels, caused by combined conditions of filthy 
quarters, improper food, and extreme heat. Most so-called cases of cholera are dysen- 
tery. Treatment of sick birds generally useless ; apparently well birds should be given 
sulpho-carbolate of zinc in the drinking water, one-eighth of an ounce of the drug to a 
quart of water. 

Colds — affect fowls variously, and if neglected, often lead to something serious; — 
(rive aconite in the drinking water, a dozen homoeopathic pellets to a quart of water. A 
good remedy to keep on hand to use for colds, bronchitis, etc., is: equal parts cayenne 
pepper, ginger and mustard, mixed as stiffly as possible in lard, then flour worked in to 
make a stiff dough ; form in slugs or pellets about the size of a small hazel nut ; give by 
opening the mouth and dropping down the throat. A single treatment often cures ; if it 
does not, it should be followed by another dose in twenty-four hours. 

If the cold is accompanied by puffing of the skin of the face, bathe the parts affected 
every two or three hours with warm water containing about 1 per cent carbolic acid ; keep 
in a warm dry place ; at night rub with vaseline. 
For treatment of colds, see also ^T 174. 
Constipation — caused by lack of exercise and of green food; in young chicks by too 



POULTR T- CRA FT. 2 1 3 

much boiled milk or " binding" food. Correct conditions for chicks: for adult fowls 
give castor oil, castoria, etc. ; any laxative that happens to be convenient will do. 

Consumption — follows colds, pneumonia, etc.; bird grows thin and weak, "goes 
light;" sometimes has good appetite, but passes food from the bowel undigested. In 
early stages this disease may easily be confounded with anemia. Treatment useless. 

Cramp — see Rheumatism. 

Crop Bound — give castor oil, or warm water; knead contents of crop, and try to force 
them out gradually through the mouth of the bird, held head down ; if this fails, open the 
crop, removing a few feathers and making a short incision through the breast, at the top 
of the crop ; remove contents, and sew up, taking care not to sew skins together. 

Crop, enlarged — can be treated by cutting out a part of the skin and sewing up; not 
often worth the trouble. 

Crop, I?iflammation of — generally due to eating a poisonous or irritating substance; 
not likely to be correctly diagnosed, and in most cases useless to treat when discovered. 
Keep such substances away from fowls. 

Debility — general weakness, without indications of organic disease; give good care, 
and start on the up grade with tonics or stimulants. 

Diarrhoea — check by giving boiled milk to drink and dry food. 

Diphtheria — see Roup. 

Distemper — a term loosely applied to a variety of diseases, generally a mild cold or 
fever. 

Dysentery — an acute blood}- diarrhcea, mostly incurable. 

Egg Bound — treatment not often permanently successful ; give dose of castor oil ; if 
this fails wash the vent with warm water, and pass in a feather dipped in sweet oil. 

Egg Broken in Body — hen will die. 

Enteritis — a non-contagious, acute diarrhcea, due to poison or irritants, or to the 
presence of worms. 

Feather Eating — probably originates in an abnormal appetite. Nearlv alwavs the 
spread of the vice can be prevented by killing the guilty bird. Watch for it. 

Frost Bite — to combs apply two or three times a day a mixture of vaseline, five table- 
spoons; glycerine, two tablespoons; spirits of turpentine, one teaspoon. When feet are 
badly frosted kill the bird. 

Gapes — gape worms in the windpipe. Place the birds, a few at a time, in a large box 
covered with a coarse cloth, and having a door in the side; dust air-slaked lime on the 
cloth. The lime breathed in by the birds causes the worms to relax their hold, and thev 
are coughed up. 

Giddiness— a mild form of apoplexy ; can often be relieved by bleeding under the wing. 

Indigestion — generally due to over-feeding; correct the diet, give abundance of green 
food, compel exercise, avoid stimulants. 

Itch — a warm weather eruption on the skin, often followed by loss of feathers : anoint 
with mixture one part carbolic acid, two parts lard. 

Lameness — due to accident or rheumatism. 

Leg Weakness— generally due to forcing, or to lack of bone forming material in the 

food : discontinue high feeding, but still feed well, giving cut bone or bone meal liberally. 

Liver Disease — due to over-feeding ; begins in congestion of the liver: if allowed to 

reach the stage when inflammation sets in, does not yield to treatment. Use a good liver 

pill, and, of course, correct wrong conditions. 

Pip — a condition of the tongue accompanying diseases when the bird is obliged to 
breathe through the mouth; treat the disease; wet the tongue frequently with glycerine. 
Pneumonia — brought on by exposure to extreme heat or cold, and by sudden change, 
dampness, etc. ; generally incurable. 

Battling in the Throat — see Bronchitis. 



a 1 4 POULTRY- CRA FT. 

Roup. — The term is used to apply to a variety of diseases affecting the head and 
throat. The present tendency is to limit the use of the word roup to diphtheria, or 
diphtheritic roup, and to call ordinary roup not seriously affecting the throat, influenza. 
Influenza can be treated as a cold. For diphtheria a number of different treatments have 
been successful at one time, and failed at another. Whether or not a cure can be effected, 
probably depends as much on the constitution and antecedents of the fowl as a treatment. 
Most of the roup remedies advertised have been successfully used in many cases. Experi- 
enced practical poultryjnen do not doctor fowls which have diphtheria. They kill and bury, 
or burn them. For those who wish to try to save their birds, the following remedies are 
given : 

One ounce oil of sassafras, one ounce best Jamaica ginger, one ounce tincture of iron, 
one ounce alcohol, a half-ounce prickly ash fluid extract, one-fourth ounce oil of anise. 
Dose, fifteen drops to one teaspoonful to each gallon drinking water. 

The following treatment, suggested by A. V. Meersch, has been successfully used in 
many cases : — Clean out the pus, if in the mouth, with a little wooden spatula ; if you 
make it bleed a little, don't be alarmed. When this is done, wash the mouth with cotton 
wadding, attached to a little stick of wood, saturated in peroxide of hydrogen, then drop 
a little aristol on each sore place; repeat this operation morning and evening for three 
days. 

Dr. H. A. Stevenson reports having both cured sick birds, and immunized others by 
injecting antitoxine. 

Worms are properly parasites. Two kinds affect fowls. Routid -worms are quite 
common; tape worms rare. The presence of worms is. not often detected except by 
examination after death. If a bird dying is found to have had worms, give well members 
of the flock turpentine in the soft food in proportion of two or three drops of turpentine 
to each fowl. 

White Comb — a scurfy condition of the comb, due to unsanitary surroundings ; use an 
ointment — heaping teaspoon oleate of zinc to half-teacup of vaseline — -wash the comb 
and head with carbolic soap and warm water before applying. 

Wind Puffs — due to injury to lung tissue; relieved by pricking, but not always 
curable. 

314. Hospital and Medicine Chest. — For the simple treatment, of 
which the object is to check incipient, rather than cure established disease, 
the poultry man should have an isolated building, small, but comfortable, and 
should keep on hand a few of the remedies most efficacious in checking 
common diseases. It is prompt work that counts. 

315. Parasites. — 

Lice probably exist in small numbers wherever there are fowls ; but as long 
as fowls are healthy and active cannot increase rapidly enough to seriously 
annoy the birds. On sick and injured fowls, scaly legged fowls, sitting hens, 
and very young chicks, they thrive when the general stock is comparatively 
free from them. Frequently they come in in force on new fowls. It should 
be an inviolable rule to treat new fowls thoroughly for lice before permitting 
them to mingle with the flock, for the lice not only annoy fowls, they carry 
the germs of infectious diseases from fowl to fowl. The most effective means 
of ridding fowls of lice are given below, quoted from Wood. (See also 
If 234 and 247) : 



POULTRY-CRAFT. 215 

" Fumigation — Use ordinary sulphur candles : one candle will serve for an ordinary 
poultry house having about one hundred and fifty square feet of floor space. Drive the 
fowls from the house, and carefully close all doors and windows before lighting the 
candle, which should be put on an old tin can cover placed on a pan of wet ashes. After 
lighting the sulphur shut the house up tightly, and keep it so for four or five hours. Air 
the building thoroughly before allowing the fowls to return. Treat the fowls for lice 
at the same time. 

"Insect Powders — most of the insect powders in the market are good. Those lice 
powders containing tobacco dust are best. Dusting with insect powder is of no value 
unless thoroughly done, and repeated at least three times., at intervals of a week or ten 
days. The best way to dust a fowl is to hold it by the legs, head down, over a box or 
some receptacle to catch the surplus powder, and then, with the free hand, work the 
powder thoroughly into the feathers and down to the skin. 

" Kerosene — is one of the most common, cheapest, and best insecticides for use in 
the poultry house. Kerosene applied every month to the roosts is a good remedy against 
mites. It may also be applied with a brush to the walls and all cracks in the poultry 
house. 

"Kerosene Emulsion — is effective in place of whitewash for ridding the house of 
vermin. It is made by dissolving a pound of hard soap in a gallon of boiling water, 
remove from the fire and, while hot, add two gallons of kerosene. Churn or agitate 
briskly for ten or fifteen minutes, or until the mixture becomes thick and creamy. Then 
add about twenty gallons of cold water, and stir in thoroughly. It can be applied to the 
coop by a sprayer, a watering pot, or an old broom. It should be driven well into all 
cracks. 

"Lime and Sulphur — a disinfecting powder is made of lime and sulphur as 
follows: — To half a bushel of fresh, thoroughly air-slaked lime add ten pounds of 
powdered sulphur and a fluid ounce of carbolic acid ; mix thoroughly by stirring with 
a stick. This powder is harmless to fowls, and may be used freely about the house, and 
in nests and dust boxes. 

"Tobacco Stems and sweepings are excellent addition to nest material as a vermin 
preventive. 

" Carry on the warfare against vermin in the poultry house, and on the fowls at the same 
time, and you will get results." 

Besides the common hen lice, fowls suffer from attacks of other insects : 

Mosquitos often bite combs, faces, and wattles ; apply a little carbolated 
vaseline. 

Buffalo or Turkey Gnats in swarms attack fowls along river bottoms, 
especially in Mississippi valley states. Preventive measures are : building 
smudge fires, and smearing exposed parts with carbolated vaseline, or some 
stinking oil. 

CA/ggers, Harvest Mites are common in the Mississippi valley as far north 
as Iowa. They harbor in weeds and bushes, and the only known preventive 
is to keep the fowls out of such places. 

Fleas sometimes infest poultry houses. They are destroyed by usual 
treatments for lice. 

Bedbugs can be exterminated by using whitewash, to which turpentine has 
been added, or by applying to the spots they haunt: "Half-pint each of 



2 1 6 POULTRY- CRA FT. 

turpentine, ammonia, and kerosene, with four ounces of camphor. Dissolve 
the camphor in the turpentine, then add the others ; apply with a brush freely." 

Scaly Leg is caused by a mite which burrows under the scales of the feet 
and shanks. The crusts can be loosened by soaking in warm, soapy water, 
or by vigorous brushing with an old tooth or nail brush. When they have 
been removed, apply sulphur ointment, or a mixture of lard and kerosene. 

Dephiming Scab Mites often damage feathers. Woods suggests as 
remedies sulphur ointment or carbolized vaseline locally applied, adding that 
large areas ought not to be covered at one time, as the effect on the fowl is 
injurious : dusting with carbolized lime is also recommended. 

316. Enemies of Fowls. — Domestic fowls have a host of feathered and 
four-footed enemies, against which the poultry keeper must be continually on 
his guard. Preventive measures are surest and best. Secure houses and coops 
to prevent night raids of cats, dogs, skunks, and other vermin. For those which 
molest the fowls in the daytime, a shot-gun is the best thing when circum- 
stances admit of using it. The poultry keeper is wisest when he is always 
prepared for marauders. A good dog can be trained to keep cats, hawks, and 
other dogs away from the fowls in daytime, and to keep watch against chicken 
thieves at night. If properly trained and kept about the fowl yards the dog 
will not molest, annoy, or frighten the chickens. Electric burglar alarms are 
sometimes used by poultrymen in cities. When it is found that a dog, cat, 
skunk, weasel, hawk, or anything else, is carrying oft" fowls, chicks, or eggs, 
the keeper should give himself no rest until he has put a stop to the proceed- 
ing. It has to be done sooner or later, and it is better to sit up all night after 
the first raid, than to permit a second. Poison is one of the most effective 
means of ridding a place of pests, but must be handled with the greatest 
caution. 




POULTR T- CRA FT. 2 1 7 



CHAPTER XV 



BANTAMS. 

317. Bantams May Be Made Profitable. — Breeders of thoroughbred 
fowls often find the popular varieties of bantams quite as profitable to handle 
as most varieties of large fowls, and though bantams are not suited to market 
poultry keeping they can often be used to furnish eggs and some poultry for 
a small family living where large fowls cannot be kept. The hardier breeds 
of bantams will thrive in very close quarters, and bantams of any kind can be 
kept on a lawn or in a garden, without fear of their damaging it as large fowls 
would. As layers, bantams are like other fowls — good, indifferent, and bad. 
One who keeps them for the eggs must select and breed for eggs, and if he 
favors birds large for bantams, can get very fair sized eggs. For poultry, 
bantams can hardly be used until well grown ; then, weight for weight, they 
are equal to any fowls. Indeed, there are few varieties of large fowls that 
make as plump carcasses as bantams do. 

318. Management of Bantams. — In a general way the methods of 
caring for large fowls are applied also to bantams but in a few particulars — 
to which attention will be called in the proper connection — some of them 
have to be considerably modified. Bantams ought not to be kept with other 
fowls. Even when there is no danger of contamination, the bantams suffer 
when obliged to compete for food with larger, heavier fowls, and very often 
the ocher birds are spiteful toward and abuse the bantams. The rules for 
mating bantams are except in one or two cases the same as for large fowls. 
In general matings of Standard birds produce a good percentage of Standard 
chicks. 

The prominent characteristic of the bantam is, of course, its diminutive 
size. In the exhibition room the smallest bird, other things being equal, 
wins. It is thus an advantage to an exhibitor to have his birds below 
Standard weights — provided other things are equal; — that is if, though 
under-weight, they are in good condition, of typical shape, and have perfectly 
developed plumage. Many bantam breeders in their eagerness to get light 
weight specimens, produce birds which fail in these most essential points. 
To get small bantams various means, such as late hatching, semi-starving, 
are frequently resorted to ; but such methods do not produce fine, well 
developed specimens. The principal factor in producing small bantams is 
selection for the breeding pen of the smallest obtainable specimens that are 



2l8 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 



good in form and color. A breeder will rarely find that he has many such 
birds under Standard weights ; the light weight birds nearly always failing in 
shape. Late hatching is not desirable. Early hatched chicks are likely to be 
better than those hatched late ; but chicks hatched in late May or early June 
generally turn out best. Hens of the large breeds are not suitable for 
hatching and rearing bantam chicks.. The best results are obtained when 
bantam hens are used. If it is not practicable to use bantam hens, " scrub" 
hens of three and four pounds weight should be used. The bantam chicks 
being so small, there is special need of guarding them from accidents, and 
the chicks of the less hardy varieties need to be carefully kept from cold and 
damp. They can be fed much as other chicks are, though they cannot eat 




Fig. 85. Bantams. 

Rose Combed Black. Exhibition Game. 

Rose Combed White. Sebright. Cuckoo. 

Cochin. Rumpless. Japanese. 

(By courtesy of W. W. Clough). 

large grains at an early age. The best developed bantam chicks are obtained 
by giving as much liberty as possible, and feeding no more than is necessary 
to keep them growing, avoiding forcing on the one hand, and stunting on the 
other. Forcing makes coarse specimens ; stunting makes peaked, scrawny 
ones. 

VARIETIES OF BANTAMS DESCRIBED. 

319. Game Bantams. — Of these there are eight Standard varieties: 
Black Breasted Red, Brown Red, Golden Duckwing, Silver Duckwing, 
Red Pyle, White, Black, and Birchen, corresponding respectively in form 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 



2ig 



and color to the Standard Exhibition Games of the same names. The 
Standard weights for Game Bantams are: — cocks, 22 ozs. ; cockerels, 20 
ozs. ; hens, 20 ozs. ; pullets, iS ozs. Game Bantams are generally hardy, 
fair layers, fond of being handled and petted. The Black Breasted Red is 
the most common and popular variety, though all the varieties mentioned are 
so generally bred that they are not anywhere unfamiliar to persons interested 
in fancy fowls. 

Malay Game Bantams, Which resemble Malay Games, are rare. 

320. Sebright Bantams. — There are two varieties, the Golden and the 
Silver, differing- only in the ground color of the plumage, which is in the 

former a golden yellow, and in the latter a 
silvery white. Each feather is laced with 
a narrow edge of black. Sebright Bantams 
have rose combs, slate colored legs and toes. 
A peculiarity of the breed is that the males 
are "hen feathered;" — that is, instead of 
having the flowing hackle and saddle feathers 
and abundant tails, as is usual in male fowls, 
the Standard Sebright Bantam male has. 
plumage differing from that of the female 
only in that the two upper tail feathers may 
be slightly curved at the ends. The produc- 
tion of such plumage on males is abnormal, 
and, as is usually the case when individuals 
of one sex assume characters of the opposite 
sex, the "best" Standard males are often partly or wholly infertile and 
worthless as breeders. Consequently the breeders of Sebright Bantams often 
find it necessary to use in the breeding pens males having plumage too much 
like that common to male fowls to admit of their being shown in the exhibition 
room. Sebrights are among the most popular varieties of bantams, and are 
fairly hardy. 




Fig. 86. Exhibition Game and White Crested 
While Polish Bantams. 



321. Rose Combed Bantams. — Of these there are two varieties, the 
White and the Black, the Whites pure white, with white or yellow legs ; the 
Blacks brilliant black, with black or dark lead colored legs. Both varieties 
are quite common, and fairly hardy. The Standard weights are the same 
as for Sebrights. 



322. Booted White Bantams. — All white, single combed, shanks and 
outer toes heavily feathered, prominent vulture hocks ; weights as for Sebrights. 
This variety might be mistaken by one not familiar with the different breeds, 



2 2o PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

for the White Cochin. The two have some general resemblances, but differ 
essentially in size, shape, texture of plumage, and color of legs. 

323. Brahma Bantams. — Two varieties, Light and Dark, resembling 
respectively the large fowls of the same names. These are newly made 
varieties, not yet extensively bred. Standard weights are — cock, 30 ozs. ; 
cockerel, 26 ozs. ; hen, 26 ozs. ; pullet, 24 ozs. 

324. Cochin Bantams. — Four varieties: Buff, Partridge, White and 
Black, miniatures of the large Cochins. The Standard weights are — cock, 
30 ozs. ; cockerel, 26 ozs. ; hen, 26 ozs ; pullet, 24 ozs. Cochin Bantams are 
very hardy. The Buff variety is most popular, but all are common enough 
to be well known. In breeding these bantams — more perhaps than in any 
others — the breeder ought not to try to keep his birds below Standard 
weights, for in the very small birds it is hardly possible to get good Cochin 
shape. 

325. Japanese Bantams. — Three varieties — the Black Tailed, which 
are white except the tail and flights; the White, and the Black. Standard 
weights are the same as given for Sebrights. Japanese Bantams are delicate 
and rare as compared with some of the other breeds. 

326. Polish Bantams. — Two varieties — the White Crested White, 
and the Buff Laced, which resemble the Buff Laced Polish fowls. Both 
varieties are delicate and rare. Standard weights are the same as for 
Sebrights. 




PO UL TR Y- CRAFT. 221 



CHAPTER XVI. 



Turkeys. 

327. The Turkey — the Farmers' Fowl. — The turkey is peculiarly a 
fowl for the general farm. Market conditions and the characteristics of the 
fowl combine to confine profitable turkey growing on a business scale to 
farms where the birds can have an extensive foraging ground. Turkeys can 
be, and are, grown on small places, but in very limited numbers. The 
turkeys produced elsewhere than on large farms hardly affect the trade either 
in market or breeding stock. 

The heaviest demand and best prices for turkeys come seasonably for the 
farm poultry keeper. The poults can be hatched at the "natural" season, 
and grown to a salable maturity in time to get the best prices of the year. 
This feature of turkey growing is one of its strongest recommendations to 
farmers' wives and daughters, who are usually the poultry keepers. Though 
it is open to question whether there is really as much to be made from tui - keys 
as from chickens on the farm, it seems plain that the women on farms 
usually think turkey growing more profitable than any other branch of 
poultry culture, and it is probably true that the income from turkeys comes 
easier than that from chickens. There is greater satisfaction in producing 
something that is marketable when the market is at its best, and will bring in 
a large lump sum, as a flock of turkeys will. Then the receipts from the 
turkeys are a distinct addition to receipts from other poultry products. Tur- 
key growing need not interfere with or curtail operations with poultry. 
Turkeys forage further than chickens, and thus the two kinds of fowl are 
kept on the same farm with little interference, the turkeys ranging mostly 
over an area outside of that used by the hens. In growing turkeys, as in 
growing chickens on the farm, the flock can be of a size proportionate to the 
foraging ground, and the turkeys may be, after the first few weeks, reared — 
and sometimes fattened for market — on what they pick for themselves. 
Even when they require regular feeding and heavy feeding to fatten, there is 
at least as much profit in feeding grain to them as to any stock produced on 
the farm. The production of exhibition and fine breeding stock is also limited 
mostly to farmers who are fanciers, and to some special poultry breeders occu- 
pying large farms. The few prominent turkey breeders located on quite small 
farms farm out most of their stock. 



222 POULTRT-CRAFT. 

328. Turkeys Can Be Grown in All Sections, — but not in every 
situation. Low, damp places and cold, heavy soils do not suit them. They 
are healthiest and develop best on rather high ground, and soils from which 
the water drains quickly. The bulk of the turkey crop — -as of the crop of 
chicken products — is produced in the central west, where the large grain, 
grass, and stock farms furnish unrivalled foraging grounds ; but there is no 
section of the country where turkeys are not profitably raised by those situated 
favorably for handling them. Exclusive turkey farms, on the lines of chicken 
and duck farms, are unknown. The nearest approach to anything of the kind 
is found in Rhode Island, where on some farms three hundred, four hundred, 
— or even more — turkeys are produced annually. 

329. Profit in Turkeys. — It is not easy to make a satisfactory estimate 
of the profit from market turkeys. Very few growers keep accounts. From 
the few accounts and close estimates which have been made public, it would 
appear that the average profit is about a dollar per head — rather less than 
more — and that the profit in most sections where turkey growing is carried 
•on extensively does not often vary much — either way — from the average. 
Reports of the amounts " made" on flocks in different sections indicate no. 
great differences in net profits on Connecticut, Rhode Island, or Vermont 
turkeys, which bring the highest prices in the eastern markets, and western 
turkeys, for which the grower receives, possibly, only half as much per 
pound. 

The profits on high class stock are proportionate to the reputation of the 
breeder and the volume of his trade. It is commonly considered that the pro- 
duction of turkeys of fine exhibition and breeding quality is less profitable 
than the breeding of chickens of similar quality. 

330. Houses for Turkeys. — Perhaps the commonest practice among 
turkey growers is to allow — or compel — their stock to roost outdoors in all 
seasons, and through all weathers. This practice is not limited to those who 
are indifferent to the welfare of their fowls. It obtains among progressive 
breeders, and is even approved and recommended by some authorities on 
turkey growing. The reasons given for continuing and sanctioning a practice 
condemned in every other line of stock keeping, are various, but are in gen- 
eral much the same as those once used by writers who advocated making 
hens " rough it." * But though all too common, this practice is by no means 

* Note. — In comparison with the methods of up to date hen men, some of the methods 
common among successful turkey growers seem thriftless — not to say barbarous. As 
compared with current instruction relating to chickens, much of the teaching of authori- 
ties on turkey culture seems antiquated. One at all familiar with the recent progress of 
poultry culture can hardly fail to have observed the striking similarity between present 
general teachings about turkeys and the kind of instruction on matters relating to chick- 
ens which was most in vogue twelve or fifteen vears ago : nor can he fail to have noticed 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 223 

universal. Many growers provide suitable buildings for both old and young 
turkeys; some turn them out in summer, and house in winter ; some, while 
leaving the turkeys free to roost outdoors, provide, near the usual roosting 
places, sheltered perches to which the fowls may go in severe weather. This 
latter method is unsatisfactory, — is in fact quite useless, (except as a sop to 
the conscience of the keeper), because it is only when a storm is uncommonly 
rough at roosting time that turkeys will desert their usual perches for shelter. 
Some will not do it voluntarily under any circumstances. 

Turkeys certainly need shelter sometimes. (This most of the advocates of 
the open air method admit). To suppose that they do not, is to assume that 
the laws of nutrition are reversed when applied to turkeys — in bad weather. 
Young turkeys in preparation for market, exposed to the cold storms of fall 
and early winter, cannot make the weights they would if protected; — it is 
not possible. If breeding stock subjected to the rigors of a northern winter, 
attains the development or keeps the condition it would if sheltered — which 
is, to say the least, very doubtful — it is at increased cost for maintenance. 
Now it is a principle — and a fundamental one — of profitable poultry culture, 
that the poultryman ought always to be prepared for those contingencies, 
which, though the exact time of their occurrence is uncertain, he knows are 
sure to happen. In the matter of shelter, for instance, the wise poultryman 
provides such accommodations, and so habituates his fowls to use them, that 
when the weather is worst the fowls can be kept comfortable, and that with- 
out the keeper being obliged to do extra work under disagreeable conditions. 
And it is surely no more than common prudence for a turkey grower who 
wants to make the most of his opportunities, to provide suitable quarters and 
train the birds to roost under cover, at least through that portion of the year 
when cold rough weather prevails. 

Turkeys do not need as warm houses as chickens. Wherever the winter is 
not severe, a shed with front of slats or strong wire netting is sufficient. Even 



that the trend of progress and of some of the best teachings on turkey topics is toxvard 
the best methods of the chicken keepers. That the precise methods used for chickens 
will ever be applied to turkeys, does not appear at all probable ; but in whatever respects 
popular methods of handling turkeys are not truly economical and humane to the fowls 
and to the keeper, the changes already made by a few growers are sure to be more widely 
adopted. Much of the close adherence to old methods has been due to the prevalent belief 
that as turkeys are not as completely domesticated as other fowls, they cannot thrive unless 
allowed to continue many of the habits of their wild ancestors. Treatment of them has 
proceeded on the assumption that they are essentially different, in nature, from other 
domestic fowls. This assumption is correct in so far as it asserts that turkeys generally 
noxv have certain habits, different from those of thoroughly domesticated fowls, which 
habits render them less amenable to methods which suit the keeper; but it is wrong in 
that it presumes that these habits cannot be modified. The turkey is undoubtedly capa- 
ble of becoming as completely domesticated as the hen (chicken), and it is highly proba- 
ble that such modification of habits would be followed by increased prolificacy — a most 
desirable improvement. 



2 24 POULTR T- CRAFT. 

in the coldest parts of this country, they will be contentedly comfortable in a 
fairly tight, but unlined building. A shed or house for turkeys should be 
somewhat higher than for chickens. The roost should be placed further from 
the ground. The droppings should not be allowed to accumulate beneath 
the roosts. 

331. Yards for Turkeys. — As may be inferred from what has been said 
of the conditions of profitable turkey growing, turkeys are rarely yarded. 
Some breeders yard the breeding stock during the breeding season ; some 
confine the laying hens until after the eggs have been laid each day, thus 
preventing them from laying in hidden or distant nests. This latter method 
recommends itself to those so situated that the breeding stock can have liberty. 
It is absurd that so many turkey keepers should spend hour after hour and 
trudge many rough miles in locating the nests of hen turkeys at liberty to nest 
where they please. The enclosure for laying turkeys shut up only a part of 
each day, need not be large. A yard fifty by one hundred feet will do for a 
flock of a dozen to twenty hens. A five-foot fence of woven wire or wire 
netting will keep the hens in bounds. Indeed, heavy hens will hesitate long 
before attempting a four-foot picket fence, and often refuse to try it. 

332. Keeping Turkeys in Confinement. — While for business turkey 
keeping fairly large range must be considered a necessity, a person who wishes 
to keep and rear a very few turkeys for pleasure, may do so on quite a small 
piece of ground — on a village lot of, say, an acre. The semi-confinement is 
not necessarily injurious. The task of keeping them within bounds will be 
easy, or difficult, according to the individual dispositions of the fowls and the 
relative force of attractions inside and outside of the home grounds. Keeping 
them healthy is principally a matter of keeping their quarters clean, and using 
good judgment in feeding. Old birds are much easier to handle than young 
ones. If there is nothing special to induce the old ones to leave home, they 
remain there apparently well contented. The young ones, unless prevented, 
will wander off as soon as they are able. They can, however, be kept 
yarded, fed about as chickens are, and make good growth, develop into really 
fine specimens. 

Handling turkeys under such conditions furnishes amusement until the 
novelty wears oft'. To one interested in such matters, the experiment is 
interesting as showing how far and in how short a time, the habits of the 
fowls can be modified. But not many who may try this kind of turkey keep- 
ing will continue it beyond a second season, for it would hardly be possible 
to undertake anything in the poultry keeping line that would give as meager 
results for the expense and trouble incurred. 

333. Kinds of Turkeys. — The Standard recognizes six varieties of 
turkeys, classifying them as sub-divisions of one breed. The so-called 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



•25 



common turkeys are mostly mixtures of the varieties, or stock of pure varieties 
so much deteriorated that the variety characteristics are no longer distinctive. 
The wild turkeys still found in some parts of the country are of the same 
species as the domestic birds, breed quite freely with them, and the introduction 
of wild blood has been a favored method of restoring vi^or of degenerate stock. 



Bronze Turkeys — 
are the largest, hardiest, 
most popular, and most 
profitable variety. Stand- 
ard weights are : adult 
cock, 36 lbs. ; yearling 
cock, 33 lbs. ; cockerel, 
25 lbs. ; hen, 20 lbs. ; 
pullet, 16 lbs. Speci- 
mens exceeding these 
weights are not un- 
common, but the heavy 
weight birds are bred 
mostly by and for fan- 
ciers. Bronze hens are 
reputed poorer layers 
than those of the other 
varieties and common 
hens. 




Fig. 87. Bronze Turkeys. 



Narragansett Turkeys — are second in size, and, probably, in popu- 
larity. The Standard weights are: cock, 30 lbs. ; cockerel, 20 lbs.; hen, iS 
lbs.; pullet, 12 lbs. In color they are gray — the ground of the plumage 
being black, and each feather ending in a steel gray band edged with black. 

Slate, Buff and Black Turkeys — should be uniformly of the colors 
which give the varieties their names, but in the first two, specimens good in 
color are quite rare. Standard weights 
are : cock, 27 lbs. ; cockerel, iS lbs. ; 
hen, iS lbs. ; pullet, 12 lbs. These varie- 
ties are not popular, but are pretty well 
distributed. 



White Holland Turkeys — are the 
smallest variety. Standard weights are : 
cock, 26 lbs. ; cockerel, 16 lbs. ; hen, 16 
lbs. ; pullet, 10 lbs. In some sections 
they rank next the Bronze in popularity. 
Turkeys called " Mammoth White " have been exhibited and advertised. These 
are generally supposed to have been produced by breeding White Hollands 
to white sports of the Bronze variety. 




Fig. 88. White Holland Turkeys. 



226 POULTRY- CRAFT. 

334. About Breeding Stock. — The principles of breeding as given in 
Chapter X., % 193 — 213, apply generally to turkeys. A few points, however, 
require special mention here. In breeding exhibition stock size is of first 
importance, markings next : big framed birds as near Standard in color as they 
can be got, are most desirable. To produce quick growing market turkeys 
small boned plump specimens are used. Old birds, if in good condition, — 
not too fat, — are the best for breeding. The male turkey does not attain full 
growth until his third year. Birds of either sex may be used for breeding 
until eight or ten years old. 

One male to ten or twelve females, is the usual rule, though a male is some- 
times used with twenty or more females with most satisfactory results as to 
fertility of eggs and vigor of offspring. A single impregnation generally fer- 
tilizes all the eggs in a litter, and sometimes all laid during a season. 

335. Management of Laying Turkeys. — The hen turkeys usually 
begin laying in March or April, the period varying with the latitude, and, to 
some extent, according to the season. If the hens are yarded, nests are distrib- 
uted about the enclosure, sometimes in coops,* boxes or barrels ; sometimes 
heaps of straw or hay are placed in convenient half-concealed places in corners 
or among shrubbery. When the turkeys are not confined at all it is still a good 
plan to place nests near the dwelling house, and, if the hens are disposed to 
wander off", prevent it until they have laid in one of the nests provided. 
Having used a nest once, they rarely desert it. 

If at liberty the breeding turkeys find a variety of food, and need be fed only 
with grain. Many growers feed corn only, but wheat and oats, or a mixture of 
corn, wheat, and oats, is considered better. Some soak the grain thoroughly 
before feeding. Some feed a mash f in the morning and hard grain at night. 
If turkeys are yarded during the laying period, a variety of food must be fur- 
nished — mixed grains, green stuff, animal food, shell, grit, and plejtty of 
water. 

As a rule turkeys are not very prolific. Many hens lay not more than eight 
or ten eggs before going brood}'. Not many lay more than seventeen or 
eighteen in the first litter. Eighteen or twenty eggs in the season is probably 
the average, though an uncommonly good layer may lay twice as many. As 

* Note. — A grower who uses coops in preference to either barrels or boxes makes the 
coops three feet square on the ground, two and one-half feet high in front, and one and 
one-half feet high in the back, with board roof, and a good sized opening in the front for 
a door. 

t Note. — In regard to feeding mashes to turkeys, it should be said that authorities are 
mostly against it. Nevertheless, many people do feed mashes with the best of results. 
The trouble with those whose birds go out of condition when fed mashes, is that their 
mash feeds are wrong either in composition, consistency, or quantity fed, — sometimes 
in all. It is worth noting that one authority, while roundly condemning mashes, highlj 
commends soaked grain, which is to all intents and purposes a soft — or mash — food. 



PO UL PR T- CRAPP. 3 3 7 

the hens lay so few eggs, it is the common practice not to allow them to sit 
until they have laid two litters of eggs. To avoid breaking or chilling, and 
also to induce the hens to lay longer, the eggs are removed from the nests 
daily, and if there is danger of the hens deserting their nests because of the 
removal of the eggs, a few chicken hens' eggs are placed in the nest. 

336. Hatching Turkeys. - The natural methods of hatching and brooding 
are used almost exclusively in turkey culture. A few growers hatch the first 
eggs in incubators, and brood the poults in brooder houses (with large runs) 
or in outdoor brooders. Though those who have tried this have been fairly 
successful, artificial methods, as applied to turkey growing, must be considered 
as still in the early experimental stage. 

Many turkeys are hatched and brooded by chicken hens, (most growers use 
them to hatch the eggs laid first), but the general opinion is that the young 
turkeys never do so well as when reared by turkey hens. * 

When chicken hens are used to incubate the turkey eggs, the nests are made 
and the hens handled just as if for hatching chickens. Nine to eleven turkey 
eggs are enough for a hen. When turkey hens are used, they must, if wild, 
be set on the nests where they had laid. If gentle they can be moved if the' 
keeper so desires, the same precautions being taken as are described for 
chickens in f 235. A turkey hen can cover fifteen to twenty eggs. 

The period of incubation for turkey eggs is twenty-eight days. It is some- 
times prolonged to thirty days. As the eggs are almost uniformly fertile, 
testing is not as necessary as with chicken eggs, and as a rule the only test 
made is three or four days prior to hatching, when the eggs are put in warm 
water, and only those that " kick," which contain live poults, returned to the 
nests. 

When the poults are hatching, the commonest practice is to remove the 
first hatched, wrap them in flannel, and keep in a warm place, and thus relieve 

* Note— The relative advantages of using chicken and turkey hens, are thus neatly 
summed up by Mrs. Hargrave, in the Reliable Poultry Journal ':— " I have found the 
advantages of turkey hens as mothers as follows : They are more quiet with little ones ■ 
are better protectors from hawks and animals; will not wean the turkeys so soon as 
chicken hens ; are kinder to little turkeys other than their own broods ; are better foragers : 
will take their little ones to the range where they can pick insects, grass seeds, etc. ; the 
little ones are not subject to so many lice as when running with a chicken hen. The 
main objection to turkey hens is, they are troublesome about coming to the accustomed 
roosting place with the brood and getting them sheltered for the night. 

"Advantages of a chicken hen are that the little turkeys will be more tame as a rule 
than when mothered by the turkey, and the hen always takes her brood to the coop in the 
evening and puts them to roost ; but as a hen is more restless, she keeps the little ones 
on the move the first few days, when they ought to be very quiet. This can be overcome 
by tying her or fastening her in the coop. * * * I endeavor to set eggs under a 
turkey hen, and some chicken hens at the same time, so when the chicken hen weans her 
brood they will, with a little effort on your part, take up with the turkey hen and her 
brood, and all go on the range together." 



23S PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

the crowded condition of the nest, and prevent the little ones being trampled.. 
Some of the best growers, however, advise letting the turkey hen alone until 
she brings the brood from the nest. This method is probably the better one 
to use with hens not accustomed to being handled, or of vicious dispositions. 

337. The Care of Young Poults. — The young turkeys will not eat for 

twenty-four to thirty-six hours after hatching ; hence no food need be offered 
them the first day. The mother should be fed. If the nest in which the 
poults were hatched is such and so situated that a small pen can be made in 
front of it, the bi'ood can remain there for some days ; if not, they should be 
removed to a suitable coop — one with board bottom being preferable — with 
pen attached. The pen for a brood of turkeys should be made of boards 
twelve to sixteen inches wide, set on edge, and enclosing a space about eight 
feet one way by twelve to sixteen the other. To this pen they should be 
confined for a week or ten days — until they are strong enough to run about. 
If the pen cannot be placed on grass land, green food should be provided from 
the start, for little turkeys seem to need green food about as soon as they need 
anything, and suffer if they do not get it. Grit and charcoal should be pro- 
vided. Lice must be fought just as on little chicks. Dampness is to be 
avoided by keeping the coop dry, by keeping the poults, in the pen, — or if 
the pen is on grass, in the coops — while the dew is on the grass, and by 
getting them under cover before rain storms. 

While the young turkeys are confined to the pens, these should be moved as 
often as necessary to new ground. The coops should be kept scrupulously 
clean. When five or six weeks old they may be allowed to range freely, but 
still need watching when severe storms threaten, and to insure their being 
home at night. A great advantage in giving an evening feed, even when it is 
not reallv needed, is that it induces the turkeys to come home regularly, and 
saves the trouble of hunting them up. At six to eight weeks of age the poults 
begin to roost, and roosts placed three or four feet from the ground should be 
provided, either under cover or where they have the partial protection of trees 
or buildings. 

From the time they " shoot the red," that is, from the time that color begins 
to develop on the head and throat, turkeys become hardier, and if their range 
is good, need little care beyond what is necessary to protect them from their 
natural enemies, and to prevent their becoming too wild. 

338. Feeding Turkeys from Shell to Market. — Remark. — The 
rations given here are those used by successful turkey growers. It will be 
observed that good results are secured from quite different systems of feeding. 
Differences in systems may be due sometimes to differences in circumstances ; 
but as a rule they depend more on the keeper than on conditions. The fact 
that some growers are successful with very simple rations, shows that much 
of the work done by those who furnish more elaborate bills of fare is super- 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 



129 



fluous. At the same time, it is to be observed that not a few who succeed 
when they fuss a great deal with chickens or turkeys, fail utterly if they 
attempt more economical methods. 

(1). Ration for Young Turkeys.— (Crangle).— " After about thirty-six hours 
old, or after the hen leaves her nest, we feed for three or four meals, equal parts of hard 
boiled eggs and stale bread. After that mostly stale bread moistened with milk. For 
two or three weeks we give curdled milk to drink. After two w^eeks we mix a little red 
pepper with the bread twice a week." 

(2). Ration for Young Turkeys.— (Curtiss).— " Our first feed is bread and milk, 
with the milk so pressed out that the bread will crumble. This is fed for the first two 
weeks, after which the feed is gradually changed to milk curd and meal, one-half part 
each, and a little cracked corn is given at night." 

(3). Ration for Young Turkeys on (iood Range. — (Mrs. Mackey). — "The first 
feed I give is milk curd, with onion tops and tongue or pepper grass cut very fine 
seasoned with black pepper. I give this morning, noon, and night. It is a mistake to 
feed very often or too much while they are young. If poults are fed three times a day 
from the time they are hatched until they are grown, they are fed often enough. Yet 
they must have something to pick all the time, hence I would advise that they be kept in 
a grass yard where the grass is kept low. 

" As they grow older I add other things to the food. Table scraps are splendid for 
them. If I have infertile incubator eggs I boil them and mix with the other food, but 
never use fresh eggs, simply because I do not consider it necessary. I give milk instead 
of drinking water when it is plentiful. I keep grit constantly before them. Wheat is 
one of the finest feeds for young turkeys. Cracked corn is splendid when they are older. 
My rule has been to mix grains of wheat in the food from the first, so that when they are 
old enough to change from curd to grain it will not be so hard to change foods." 

(4). Rations From Shell to Market.— (Mrs. Hakgrave).— " I feed poults everv 
two hours until about ten days old, giving stale light bread softened in sweet milk (or 
water), squeezed dry, mixed with hard boiled eggs, including shells, finely broken. This 
food is alternated with bread and clabber cheese, oat flake and egg, or cheese seasoned 
with a little salt and pepper. After the little ones are about a week old I begin mixing a 
little whole or cracked wheat, Indian corn, Kaffir corn, or millet with the cooked food, 
and thus they learn to eat grain. Always try to feed no more than they will eat up clean 
each time. When they are about a week old I begin to drop the white bread, and give 
them instead what I call a brown light bread made the same as white bread, using one- 
half white flour (a cheap grade will do) and the other half about equal parts of shorts 
and bran, with a handful or two of corn meal. The meal makes it crumble easily. The 
bread should be allowed to dry for a day or two before feeding; if fed fresh it may choke 
the poults. I gradually drop the white bread and eggs, and feed instead the brown bread 
and cheese. When about six weeks old they have become accustomed to the grain food, 
which since they were three weeks old has been kept by them in troughs, in coops so 
constructed that the little turkeys can get in and the older fowls are kept out. By the 
time the poults are nine or ten weeks old I have dropped the soft or cooked feed to once 
or twice per day. By September the older poults are dependent upon grain food and 
range. For fattening I had good results with a mixture of grains proportioned as 
follows: — two bushels whole corn, two bushels cracked corn, one bushel oats, one 
bushel Kaffir corn." 



230 POULTR T- CRA FT. 

(5). An All Corn Ration. — (Cushman). — " Successful Rhode Island growers as a 
rule feed their turkeys from start to finish on northern white flint corn, which they grow 
themselves. They take great pains to feed nothing but well seasoned old corn, because 
they have found that new corn causes bowel trouble. Turkeys not only like northern 
flint corn best, and fatten best on it, but it makes their flesh more tender, juicy and 
delicious. That given the little ones is coarsely ground, and mixed with sweet or sour 
milk, or made into bread that is moistened with milk. This is gradually mixed with 
cracked corn, which when they are about eight weeks old, is fed clear or mixed with sour 
milk. In the fall whole corn is given. After June 1st those at full liberty are usually 
fed but twice daily. They are hunted up and fed in the fields, that they may stay away 
from the farmyard, and outbuildings. Many give the turkeys no food from August 1st 
until cool weather. They get their own living until they come up from the fields in 
September or October. Upon the approach of cold weather they come to the house to be 
fed, and thereafter roam but little. 

"To fatten them for Thanksgiving, they are fed in November all the whole corn they 
will eat three times per day. It is not necessary to coop them. The full feeding causes 
them to rest and sun themselves. Dough is not much used for fattening in Rhode Island. 
One grower who gives it every morning, and whole corn at night, mixes condition 
powder with the dough, and finds it causes them to eat more and gain faster. Some 
raisers give a little new corn mixed with the old at this time, but most consider it safer 
to feed clear old corn. It is not best to heavily feed turkeys that are to be held for a later 
market, or those to be kept over for breeding." 

339. The Market for Turkeys. — The heaviest demand for turkeys 
comes at the winter holiday season. The bulk of the crop is marketed in 
about two months. Usually the best prices of the year are obtained for 
"Thanksgiving turkeys." Through the remainder of the year there is a 
limited demand, and it will happen once in a while that prices are as good 
in the late winter as at any earlier time. It would be no object for the grower 
to hold marketable turkeys over the period of best demand, in expectation of 
better prices ; but good prices in February and March may give him better 
profit on any late turkeys he may happen to have. 

At some of the eastern summer resorts there has lately arisen a demand for 
turkey broilers, ten or twelve weeks old. At the prices obtained, growers 
near these resorts may find it as profitable to sell the turkeys at that age as to 
mature them for the winter trade. This demand is confined to a very few 
places, and it is as yet impossible to say whether it is likely to continue and 
become more general. 

The description given in *{ 276 of the kind of chickens in demand, applies 
also (with some slight changes which immediately suggest themselves), to 
turkeys. The popular demand is for medium to small turkeys. During 
Thanksgiving week twelve to fifteen pound turkeys command the best prices ; 
but good stock of ten pounds (or even less ; the buyer finds) weight brings 
good prices. Very large birds — as is the case in all kinds of poultry — 
go mostly to the hotel and restaurant trade, and do not bring as good 
prices as stock of the same quality in the weights required for the family 
trade. 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 23 1 

340. Preparing for Market and Selling. — The information given in 
Chapter XII., in regard to marketing poultry, (see \% 269 — 271, 278 — 289), 
applies generally to turkeys. There are, however, a few points deserving 
special mention. 

The turkey grower ought always to reserve as many of his best devel- 
oped birds as he needs to replace breeding stock, or for his trade in breed- 
ing stock, if he carries on that trade. There is often a strong temptation 
to market the best birds when prices are best, and trust to the later birds 
developing in time to be sold or used as breeders. This is bad policy, and has 
doubtless done more than any other one thing to deteriorate flocks of turkeys. 

It is very important to prevent the turkeys being frightened or bruised when 
caught for killing. A bruised carcass does not bring the price a perfect one 
does. The method of catching birds that have not been sheltered is thus 
described by Cushman : — 

" The usual plan is to get the birds into a barn or carriage shed, and shut them in. In 
order to do this, they are fed for a long time in front of, or just within the place where 
they are to be caught. Later, the feed is placed within the building, and they become so 
familiar with it that they are unsuspicious when within. When they are to be caught, 
the doors of the building are suddenly closed ; or a covered yard of wire netting is built 
in front of the building and closed when all are in. Usually when they find they are 
confined they become frightened, and fly back and forth, or huddle up in corners. * * * 
To overcome this drawback, certain raisers have improved the usual makeshift catching 
place by building a long, low, dark pen back of the barn or shed. This pen extends 
alongside of the building, and is at right angles with the entrance to it, and at the extreme 
end is about two feet high. Up to the time of their being caught, the end is left open, 
and the birds frequently find their way through it. When they are to be caught, only 
what the pen will comfortably take are driven in. They do not discover that the end is 
closed until it is too late to turn back. The turkeys that are not to be caught, are first 
driven away; otherwise they may be alarmed, and become unmanageable. No turkey 
that is thus caught, and has learned the mysteries of the trap is ever allowed to escape, 
or its suspicions would be communicated to the others. When shut in this pen they are 
quiet, and when a man goes to catch them, there is no struggle ; he simply reaches out ' 
and takes them by the legs. The pen is loo dark and narrow for them to fly, and too 
low for them to crowd one upon another." 

341 . Selling Exhibition and Breeding Stock. — Preparing for Exhi- 
bition. — A breeder of fine turkeys who does not also breed other fine poul- 
try, is likely to find it hard to sell them profitably, except what a local trade 
will take. Ordinarily the trade will not be large enough, or the prices 
obtained high enough to warrant advertising for turkeys exclusively. 

With many exhibitors preparation for exhibition consists simply in taking 
the bird from the range to the exhibition coop. If the birds are to show 
themselves to advantage, though, they should be accustomed to the coop and 
to being handled and inspected before going to the show room. 

342. Diseases of Turkeys. — Doctoring sick turkeys is mostly unprofit- 
able business. It does not pay to attempt it except under conditions as stated 



23 2 PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

for chickens in If 310. Turkeys are affected by many of the same diseases as 

chickens, and by a few which are either peculiar to the turkey or attack it in 

a different form. 

Diseases most prevalent among and disastrous to turkeys, are : — 
Blackhead — which has been long common and troublesome in the east, 

and frequently appears in other sections. According to Cushman : 

"It is an infectious liver disease, similar in its nature to human dysentery. The 
disease takes its name from the fact that turkeys of a certain age, when affected, look 
shrunken, pinched, and purple about the head. Turkeys having the disease probablv 
affect the land they run upon. The organisms are present in their excrement, and if 
taken in with food or water, may produce the disease in other turkeys. Sick birds 
should be killed and burned or deeply buried. Buildings, coops and feeding and drinking 
vessels which they may have contaminated, should be disinfected. Birds once having this 
trouble, even if they have apparently recovered, may still not be free from it, and be able 
to scatter infecting material. It is therefore not best to keep specimens that have ever 
been affected. Take great pains to clear out the sick from both young and old, and then 
if it is possible, change the well ones to new ground. Some turkeys resist infection 
where others succumb to it. Doubtless some have. such vigor and power that they over- 
come or destroy infection if it reaches them. 

" Little turkeys are most susceptible. They are infected early in life, and the disease 
develops fast or slow according to how numerous the organisms are, or to the strength 
of the turkey. Wet, stormy weather aggravates the disease. Their feathers look rough ; 
they have diarrhoea, with bright yellow excrement ; and they weakly drag one foot after 
the other for some time before they die. Here (in Rhode Island) they usually die in the 
latter part of July, early in August, and at the beginning of cold weather. 

" In some cases both caeca are affected, in others but one, or a part of one. Those 
having but a small part of the liver invaded may live through the winter, and not die 
until spring. 

" Prevention is possible, but cure is difficult. By breeding them to secure great vigor, 
by feeding to counteract any tendency to diarrhoea, and by giving preventive treatment 
upon the slightest symptoms of abnormal looseness, much may be done to help them 
resist this disease if they are exposed to it. 

" A tonic and stimulant for the liver and bowels will help prevent the disease ; confine- 
ment and over-feeding favor it. Pepper and ginger, and something sour are indicated as 
well as an astringent. Sick turkeys sometimes recover after they can eat all the acorns 
they want; they administer the astringent themselves. One beginner, after losing manv 
little turkeys, reports that he cured a lot in two weeks by giving them a saturated solution 
of epsom salts in milk to drink, and nothing but grass to eat." 

Colds and Roup — see IF 313. 

Gape Worms — see ^[ 3 13. 

Rheumatism — see % 313. 

Tape Worms — are very common in turkeys, and often kill whole flocks of 
young ones. Freshly powdered kuosso is a highly recommended remedy. 
Tansy and pumpkin seeds are also recommended. See also ^[313. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



2 33 



CHAPTER XVII. 



DUCKS. 



343. Introductory. — The duck business as carried on by " duck farm- 
ers," usually combines the growing of " green " * ducks for market, of stock 
for exhibition and breeding, and the production of eggs for hatching. Eggs 
are not produced specially for table use, as hen eggs are, and only a small per 
cent of duck eggs go to market. A few duck farmers confine operations to 
the growing of market ducks. 

The duck business presents several features worth special mention : — Duck 
growing for profit really has to do with only one of the numerous varieties of 
ducks, that one being for the purpose far superior to all others. In striking 
contrast to the turkey — the general farmers' fowl — the duck is a fowl for the 
specialist, peculiarly suited to intensive poultry keeping. Ducks are remark- 
ably free from disease and vermin. They grow twice as fast as chickens and 
turkeys. Of all fowls they are most easily managed in close quarters. Some 
of their bad points — as well as the good ones — are to the advantage of the 
specialist. They are of all fowls the most difficult to dress properly, and the 
most unsalable when not marketed in nice condition. Thus in handling them 
skilled labor with convenient appliances has greater advantages over make- 
shift arrangements and unskilled or half-skilled labor than in any other branch 
of poultry keeping. 

Until a few years ago the growing of green ducks for market, which is the 
principal branch of the business, was carried on only in a few localities within 
easy reach of New York and Boston ; but of late, poultry keepers all over 
the country, excited by stories of large profits from ducks, have tried duck 
growing. Some large farms have been established at interior points, and 
thousands of poultry keepers have been producing ducks in quantities ranging 
from a few dozens to as many hundreds. Very few of those thus engaging in 
duck growing had any knowledge of the real condition of the duck market — 
further than that ducks were generally bringing much better prices than other 
poultry, — or realized how very limited was the demand for green ducks 
outside of the large eastern cities. The duck, has been, as a recent writer justly 



*Note. — "Green" ducks: — quick grown ducks marketed at between two and three 
months of age — corresponding to soft roasters in chickens. 



234 POULTR T- CRAFT. 

says : " more the food of the clubman and the epicure than the staple dish of 
the family." This was the case where the edible qualities of quick grown, 
grain fed ducks were pretty well known. Elsewhere the reputation of 
" duck" as a food was about as unsavory as the flesh of the common puddle 
duck, the only kind of which people generally knew anything. Consumers 
of poultry were apt to look askance at their poultryman when he tried to sell 
them duck as a delicacy, and at a higher price than chicken. Thus the 
growth of a popular taste and demand for ducks is necessarily slow, the more 
so because so many regular consumers of good poultry can eat duck only 
occasionally, or only in cool weather; or, perhaps, not at all. Under the 
circumstances, the first who tried ducks in each locality usually found it much 
easier to produce duck meat than to sell it profitably. The natural result was 
the congestion of the surpluses from all quarters in the few markets where 
the demand had been good. Following this came demoralization of prices, 
particularly in the latter part of each season. 

Though the business has been temporarily overdone, well established farms 
are able to make a very fair profit ; and duck growing still offers opportunity 
for a living or a part of a living according as one engages in it extensively and 
exclusively, or on a smaller scale in connection with other branches of poultry 
culture, or with some other business. Wherever good ducks are produced, 
the demand for them will steadily increase, and though it is neither likely nor 
— for the best good of the industry — desirable, that there should be a return 
to the high prices of earlier years, the inevitable adjustment of supply to 
demand will hold prices high enough generally to give the grower a living 
profit. 

344. Profit From Ducks. — On large plants the estimated total cost of 
producing ducks is 6 to 8 cts. per pound. At the lowest prices yet reached 
this gives the grower a net profit of 15 to 20 cts. on each duck. As a large 
part of the product is marketed before very low prices are reached, the average 
net profit, at prevailing prices, should be about 25 cts. or more, per duck. At 
that figure a plant producing ten thousand to fifteen thousand ducks annually 
yields a substantial profit. A plant of such capacity, however, is not built in 
a season, nor is it every man who tries duck growing that can successfully 
manage such a plant. It represents a total investment of hardly less than 
$10,000, and the ability to produce ducks at the cost figures given is gained 
only with years of practical experience. In a business conducted on a smaller 
scale the cost of production is greater, and the profit less. A plant which one 
man could manage, with a little assistance during the marketing season, would 
hardly do more nowadays than give him fair remuneration for his own labor. 
His net income would probably be about the same as that for the one man 
poultry business described in \ 4. The amounts credited to different items 
would differ; the totals would be nearly the same. This estimate, however, 
is merely suggestive. As a matter of fact, but one duck grower in a hundred 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



2 35 



would find it advisable to run a duck business on a one man scale. Where an 
exclusive duck farm will pay it must be on a larger scale ; elsewhere generally 
duck growing must be carried on as one branch of a combination.* 

345. Ducks Adapted to All Sections. — Sites for Duck Plants and 
Houses. — The information given in Chap. II., ^[ 18, 20, 21, 23 — 26, applies 
generally to duck culture. Exclusive duck farming can be made profitable 
only near a large city, where there is good demand for ducks. A few ducks 
can be profitably grown almost anywhere. As has been intimated, the duck 
growers, like the breeder of high class chickens (^[19), awakens interest in 
and creates an ever-increasing demand for his product. 

Though water fowls, ducks need a well drained soil and dry houses. For 
breeding ducks a pond or stream of water is an advantage, but not absolutely 
necessary. Natural shade is desirable. If there is none, artificial shade must 
be provided, for ducks are extremely sensitive to the heat of the sun. 

346. Houses and Yards. 

For Breeding Ducks. — Duck houses are built on the same general plans 
as houses for chickens. Either of the houses shown in Figs. 1 and 4, would 
make a good house for a small flock of ducks. For a very small flock a good 
sized coop may be used. The coop shown in Fig. 46, would do very well for 
a few ducks and a drake. On large plants the houses are usually built on the 
continuous plan, (see Figs. 11 and 12), modified to suit the ducks and the 
methods of duck keeping. The pens for ducks are generally larger than for 
chickens, and as it is desirable to have them as nearly square as it is practica- 
ble, most duck houses are wider, though some narrow houses are in use. 

On one of the largest duck farms the pens are 15 x 20 ft., in houses 18 ft. wide,, 
and of such lengths as are desired and the "lay of the land" permits. These 
houses are 6 ft. high at the back, where the walk is, and four feet high in front ;. 
with double pitched roof 12 ft. to the peak. In the south side (front) of each 
pen are two half-windows and a door to give the ducks access to the outside 
runs. In the north wall, opposite the middle of each pen, is a half-window 
for ventilation in warm weather. The partitions between the pens and between 
pens and walk are of boards, and are about 30 in. high. In the partition 
between each pen and the walk is a gate wide enough to admit a wheelbarrow 
when the pens are to be cleaned. In feeding, gathering eggs, etc., the gates 
are not used ; the attendant easily stepping over the partitions. About forty 
breeding ducks are kept in each pen. The yards connecting with the pens are 
20 ft. wide by 100 ft. long. 

* Note. — In most places poultrymen growing both chickens and ducks, will usually 
find the latter more profitable as long as their home market is not over-stocked ; especially 
is this true of those producing for a family trade. To illustrate: — A plant having an 
annual capacity of three thousand table chickens, old and young, may have trade that 
will take only twenty-five hundred fowls at profitable prices. There is then no object 



236 POULTR T- CRA FT. 

On another farm the houses are built without walks; are 15 ft. wide, 8 ft. 
high in front, 5 ft. 4 in. high at the back, with shed roof. In the front are the 
doors to outside runs, and half-windows every ten feet. In the back, at the 
middle of each pen, is a half-window through which bedding is renewed and 
litter removed. For economy of construction and convenience in working, 
this style of house is hard to excel. 

On still another plant thirty-five breeding ducks are kept in each 13 x 
13 ft. pen, connected with which is a yard 26 x 125 ft., of which 26 x 36 ft. is 
water. 

Fixtures. — The necessary interior furnishing of the duck house is of the 
simplest. When the ducks are fed and watered indoors, drinking fountains, 
feed troughs, and boxes for shell and grit, complete the furnishing. Some 
breeders feed outside. Nest boxes are not needed ; duck keepers agree that 
fewer eggs are broken or lost when the ducks scoop out nests in the litter or 
earth, each one as it suits her. 

Fences. — The yard fences, like the inside partitions, are low, 2 ft., i\ ft., 
sometimes 3 ft. high. Wire netting attached to stakes driven into the ground, 
is used for fencing. 

Brooder Houses, as described in \*{ 46, 47, and illustrated in Figs. 29 — 32, 
are used for ducklings. — Separate brooders are also used. — The partitions, 
both in the houses and outside, need be only 1 ft. high for the small ducklings. 

DUCKS DESCRIBED. 

347. Kinds of Ducks. — Fowls were described in % 68 as: — common, or 
mongrel ; cross bred; grade; pure bred, and Standard bred. These terms 
apply to ducks also, though crosses are much rarer than among chickens. 
Many flocks of so-called Pekins are grades produced by the systematic use of 
Pekin drakes on white ducks starting from common white ducks. Common 
ducks are often very good layers, but grow slowly, and their meat is inferior 
to that of the improved varieties. 

348. Pekin Ducks. — Though White Pekin ducks may not merit all that 
is said of them by enthusiastic breeders, it is certain that without the Pekin 
duck the business could not have grown to its present proportions, and that 
as a market duck this breed has no rival. They are hardy, quick growers, 

in producing to the full capacity of the plant. But, if without any diminution of sales of 
other poultry, five hundred ducks can be profitably sold — as in many cases they could 
be, — it would pay to raise that many ducks, and the ducks would probably pay pro- 
portionately better than the chickens. At the same time, it might be a bad mistake to 
suppose that because the ducks were paying better it would be wise to reduce the produc- 
tion of other stock, and increase the number of ducks grown. 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 



2 37 



prolific layers of large white * eggs, and thrive in close confinement. Standard 

weights are : adult 
drake, S lbs. ; young 
drake, 7 lbs. ; adult 
duck, 7 lbs. ; young 
duck, 6 lbs. The body 
of the Pekin duck is 




~nir vei T l° n g ar >d deep, 
$&* ~ well rounded and full, 



Fig. 89. Pekin Drake. (By courtesy of A. J. Hallock) . 



both in breast and in 
the rear. The plum- 
age, which is softer 
and more downy than 
that of other varieties, 
is of a faint creamy 
white surface color, 
with yellow sometimes 
quite .strong in the 
under color. The beak 
is deep yellow, and 

according to the Standard should be free from black marks. In adult drakes, 

black streaks and black knobs 

(at the end of the upper man- 
dible), are rarely absent. 

Many breeders affirm that 

the most vigorous drakes 

usually show some dark color 

in the beak. The legs and 

toes should be of a reddish 

orange color. The principal 

faults are an exceedingly timid 

disposition, and the coarse stri- 
dent voice of the female. 



349. Aylesbury Ducks 

resemble the Pekins in a 
general way — they are large 
white ducks, — but have bodies 
more oval shaped ; whiter, 
harder plumage ; flesh colored 
beaks, and light yellow feet. 




Fig. 90. Pekin Duck. 



* Note. — From every large flock of Pekins, some green eggs are gathered. These are 
usually rejected for incubating. The birds producing them are supposed to have a taint 
of foreisrn blood. 



2 3 S 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



According to the descriptions of this breed as grown near the English town 
from which it takes its name, Aylesbury ducks should be quite the equals of 
the Pekins in market quality and in capacity for quick growth. In the hands 
of the American growers they have so far been decidedly inferior. Standard 
•weights are : adult drake, 9 lbs. ; young drake, 8 lbs. ; adult duck, S lbs. ; 
young duck, 7 lbs. 



350. Rouen Ducks have the same Standard weights as Aylesburys. In 
color they resemble the common colored ducks, though in well bred stock the 

colors of the plum- 
age are clearer, and 
in the male more 
brilliant than is 
usual in common 
ducks. * Consider- 
able differences of 
opinion exist as to 
the merits of the 
Rouen duck. A 
result of the ac- 
knowledged superi- 
ority of the Pekins 
for the purposes of 
the duck farmer, 
has been to throw 
other varieties — no 
matter how many 
good qualities they 

Pig- 9i. Rouen Ducks. (By courtesy of " Poultry," England). DOSSeSS into the 

shade. That good Rouen ducks are inferior to Pekins in vigor, prolificacy, 
capacity for rapid growth, or actual quality of meat, remains to be proved. 
The color of the Rouen is against it as a table duck. As the duck industry is 
principally the growing of ducks for the table and of stock from which to pro- 
duce table ducks, the Rouen never can be seriously considered a competitor of 
the Pekin ducks in economical duck growing. It is a duck for the fancier and 
for those who keep ducks for home use, and do not object to the dark pin- 
feathers. 




351 . Cayuga Ducks have the same standard weights as Pekins, but prob- 
ably average much lighter. The}' are classed as hardy, early maturing birds. 



*Note. — Wright supposes the common colored ducks to be degenerate Rouens. It 
would be more natural to think the Rouen a vastly improved common duck. 



POULTRT-CRAFT. 239 

and good layers. In color they are a lustrous greenish black, — the flight 
feathers of the females sometimes brownish. In most sections of the country 
they are rare. 

352. Call Ducks are bantam ducks. There are two varieties : the Gray, 
in color resembling Rouens, and the White. They are kept only by fanciers, 
and as ornamental fowls. 

353. Black East Indian Ducks are small black ducks, not common, 
and kept mostly for ornamental purposes. 

354. Crested White Ducks are almost sufficiently described by their 
name : they are of medium size, and quite rare. 

355. Muscovy Ducks are specially distinguished by the bare face with 
much carunculated skin, giving them a savage appearance, and a reputation for 
viciousness which the males, at least, richly deserve. Standard weights are : 
adult drake, 10 lbs. ; young drake, 8 lbs ; adult duck, 8 lbs. ; young duck, 
7 lbs. They are reputed very poor layers. Before the advent of the Pel in 
the White variety of this breed was used by Long Island duck growers. 
There are two varieties : Colored Muscovy Ducks are black and white, irregu- 
larly marked, the black generally predominating ; with dark colored bills, 
and legs ranging from yellow to black. White Muscovy Ducks have pure 
white plumage, flesh colored beaks, and yellow legs. 

356. Indian Runner Ducks were but recently introduced into this coun- 
try. They are small ; Standard weights : males, 4^ lbs. ; females, 4 lbs. Their 
color is a light fawn (or gray). They are valued chiefly for laying qualities. 
Rare, and not likely to become popular. 

357. Buying Stock. — The remarks on buying stock, ^% in, 112, apply 
to ducks as well as to chickens. Prices of ducks and of duck eggs, while 
ruling about the same as prices of chickens, for good breeding and ordinary 
exhibition stock, (^[ 113), never reach the extreme high prices mentioned for 
chickens. As to starting with eggs or with stock, the remarks in IT 1 14 apply, 
except that Pekin duck breeders sometimes advise starting with eggs rather 
than stock when the shipment has a long distance to go. The ducks go off 
badly on a long journey, and are not likely to be worth much as breeders the 
first season in their new home. 

358. Points on Breeding. — As much of the information contained in 
Chap. X., %% 193 — 214, as is of general application, applies to duck breeding. 
Points requiring special mention are: — 



240 POULTR T- CRA FT. 

Selecting B reeding Stock. — • 

In mating ducks to produce high class stock, standard specimens of both 
sexes are in every variety used to produce exhibition specimens of both sexes ; 
there are no double matings. 

In mating ducks to produce market stock, deep keeled, meaty specimens, 
strong (not coarse) in bone, should be selected. They should have been 
hatched in April, May or June.* If rapid growth is desired in the offspring, 
it is advisable that the breeding birds selected should be known to have made 
quick growth ; but table quality ought not to be sacrificed to quick growth, 
for the worst fault of ducks generally is that they carry too little meat for 
their weight. 

If very early ducklings are wanted, young ducks must be kept to lay the 
eggs from which to hatch them. The young ducks lay a month or more 
earlier than the yeaidings and two year olds. The older birds throw better 
ducklings. Most large operators have breeding birds of different ages, 
depend on the younger birds for early eggs, and use only eggs from older 
stock for hatching ducklings for breeding stock. 

Number of females to a male. — The usual rule is five until June, after 
that ten. The birds are kept in flocks of twenty-five to forty of both sexes. 
Some breeders who have good water range, say that with it they can run one 
drake to seven, nine, or even twelve ducks throughout the season. 

The breeding season covers as much of the laying season as the grower 
wishes. Some breeders hatch nearly every egg laid, continuing operations 
until late in summer ; some hatch only for the period of good prices. The 
pens should be mated up early. If forced for eggs, some ducks begin laying 
about January 1st, (a few, perhaps, earlier) ; many will be quite a month 
later. Under ordinary conditions, the ducks in flocks not managed for eggs 
rarely begin laying before March. The laying season lasts until June, July, 
or August, varying for individual ducks, and depending much on the care 
and general condition of the flock. As to the average number of eggs laid, 
there are wide differences of opinion. Estimates placing the average at 160, 
150, 140, have been given, but one well informed duck grower thinks the 
average for large flocks nearer to 100 than to any of those figures; and 
another states that in his own flocks the yearly product per duck varies from 
100 to 135. 

CARE OF BREEDING STOCK. 

359. About Water Range. — Though some of the largest growers give 
their breeding ducks no water except for drinking, there are few who do not 
think access to a pond or stream of water, or a range on marshy ground a 

*Note. — Some breeders use only April or May hatched birds; some say the June 
birds are just as good ; all agree that very early and very late hatched ducks are not 
desirable as breeders. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 241 

decided benefit to the breeding stock. As is often said, they can do without 
it; they will do better with it. Swimming, paddling about in marshy places 

and along margins of streams, is to the duck what scratching is to the hen 

a natural and favorite exercise. Ducks in all dry yards are in the condition 
of hens in bare yards and on bare floors — they have nothing to do between 
meals. The benefits of such exercise as can be secured in even a little pool 
just large enough for a few ducks to paddle in at once, are immediatelv 
noticeable when such a pool is furnished ducks which had been kept without 
water. * Water for bathing ought to be considered as necessary for ducks, as 
the dust bath is for hens. The important results of giving breeding ducks 
water range, are : greater fertility of eggs, more vigorous ducklings, and the 
birds themselves always looking well groomed. 

360. Cleanliness is important. Feed troughs and drinking vessels 
should be kept clean. The floors of the pens are generally littered with 
cheap hay, shavings, or similar material, and cleaned out and the bedding 
renewed as often as is necessary to give the ducks reasonably clean dry bed- 
ding at all times. The yards need to be swept or scraped occasionally, and 
the accumulation of droppings removed. Many breeders so arrange that the 
yards can be disinfected by plowing up in the fall and sowing to rye. This 
serves the double purpose of purifying the soil, and furnishing green food for 
the ducks in winter and spring. 



361. Gentleness and Quietness — are all-important in the duck yard. 
Pekin ducks are absolutely fearless until it has been necessary to catch some 
of them when they have grown too large to be taken easily by the body in 
the hand. After some of a flock have been caught by the neck, all become 
shy of the keeper, and if an attendant is hurried and reckless when moving 
among them, or if they are disturbed by visitors or dogs, the egg yield usually 
falls off. The breeding pens once made up, no birds should be removed. 
Stock for sale ought never to be kept with breeding stock. 

362. About the Eggs. —When the ducks have access to water, it is 
necessary to keep them from it until all have laid in the morning. Usually 

* Note.— Without doubt some ducks kept without water do better than some given 
constant access to water ; — there may be differences in breed, feed, and general care; but 
as between water for swimming, or at least for bathing, and water for drinking only, 
it seems incredible that any one who has tried both -with the same ducks could have any 
other opinion than that enough water for bathing is a necessity, and that more is 
desirable. Pekin ducks which have not been accustomed to water may seem shy of it 
if an attempt is made to drive them to water away from their quarters, and may 
hesitate, but not for long,— to plunge into a pool prepared for them in a yard where 
there had been none. 



242 PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

all will have laid by eight o'clock. (Ducks generally lay at night or very 
earlv in the morning). In cold weather eggs should be gathered as early as 
possible to prevent their becoming chilled. Soiled eggs should be washed at 
once, and in cold weather should be wiped dry after being washed. The 
eggs should be kept in a cool place. (See *[ 229). 

363. Feeding Breeding Ducks. — Ducks are fed mostly on mixtures of 
mill stuffs wet with cold water. Very few large duck growers cook the food, 
though some scald it in winter. Cooked food can be used if convenient, but 
unless the food must be cooked for other stock, there is no object in cooking 
it for the ducks. The common experience of breeders is that they do just as 
well on raw food. Many feed the ducks no whole grain at all. Their 
digestive apparatus is not suited to a diet composed largely of whole grain ; 
still they appreciate a little of it occasionally. There must always be water 
near the feeding troughs at feeding times, and except in freezing weather, 
the ducks should have drinking water always accessible. Ducks are greedy, 
dirty feeders. They will consume a larger proportion of coarse bulky food 
than hens will ; yet they are not as heavy feeders as is commonly supposed. * 
In general it is both economy and good feeding to give ducks fed a pretty 
good meal of grain stuffs morning and evening ; all the green food they 
will eat during the day. Where ducks are kept in rather close confine- 
ment, the most common error in feeding is giving grain food too often, 
and not providing green stuff in abundance. Ducks need grit, shell, and 
charcoal. 

Ducks ranging as many small flocks do, often find food which imparts a 
strong flavor to eggs and flesh. If the eggs are used only for hatching this is 
immaterial ; if some of them are wanted for cooking, the ducks must be kept 
from the objectionable food. The rations given below are from well known 
duck growers. They present less variety than the rations given for hens 
and chickens (^[146), but the ingredients used are mostly such as may be 
obtained anywhere. 

(1). Ration for Breeding Ducks. — (Hallock). — Four pails corn meal, 2 pails 
bran, 1 of middlings, 1 of oats, 1 of wheat, mixed with 2 bu. chopped grass or greens or 
chopped clover used when greens cannot be had. 

(2). Rations for Breeding Ducks. — (Rankin). — During the fall feed to both old 
and young stock 3 parts wheat bran, 1 part Quaker oat feed, 1 part corn meal, 5 per 

*Note. — It is often said, even by those who should know better, that it is impossible 
to satisfv the appetite of a duck. Such statements lead people to think it much more 
expensive to feed ducks than to feed other fowls. A flock of grown ducks will not eat 
more than an equal number of average chickens ; nor does it require more food to grow 
a duck than to grow a chicken of the same weight. 



POULTR T- CRA FT. 243 

cent beef scraps, 5 per cent grit, and all the green stuff they will eat * in the shape of 
corn fodder cut fine, clover or oat fodder, etc. Feed this mixture twice a day, all they 
will eat. 

For laying birds— 5 parts wheat bran, 5 parts corn meal, 4 parts Quaker oat feed, 2 
parts boiled potatoes or turnips, 3 parts of clover rowen, 1 of grit; add green rye or 
refuse clover cut fine. Feed twice a day all they will eat, with a lunch of corn and oats 
at noon. 

(3). Ration for Breeding Ducks on Grass Range— (Pollard).— Feed night 
and morning what they will eat of a mixture of 3 parts Indian meal, 3 parts wheat bran. 
1 part low grade flour, 1 part beef scraps ; the whole salted slightly, and thoroughly 
mixed, not too wet, with cold water. Never cook the food except in winter, when it 
may be mixed with hot water. In winter give a liberal allowance of boiled turnips 
mashed in with the grain, say one-third turnips every other morning, and give cabbage 
or any other green food obtainable at noon. 

(4). Rations for Breeding Ducks.-( Weber Bros.)- In fall keep on grass ran-e 
and feed light. From the middle of November, when put in laying houses, until 
December 15th, feed equal parts shorts and ground oats, to which add five per cent beef 
scraps; give this twice a day, morning and evening; give green food at noon. After 
December 15th give full laying ration : equal parts corn meal and shorts, with ten per 
cent beef scraps added. If green food is not available add one-fifth cooked vegetables to 
the mash. Give raw vegetables at noon two or three times a week. 

HATCHING AND REARING. 

364. Which Method ?— In duck growing on a large scale, only artificial 
methods of hatching and brooding are used; small growers frequently use 
hens. (Ducks are rarely used to incubate their own eggs. The Pekins are 
non-sitters). If one has the hens, it may pay better to hatch with them when 
not more than a few hundred ducks are reared; but to get or keep hens 
expressly to hatch ducklings, would be very poor policy. In any case when 
more than two or three hundred ducks are to be hatched, artificial methods 
should be used. 

365. Hatching in Incubators.— The artificial method as described in 
Chapter XI., \\ 253—259, applies to duck eggs, except in the few points noted 
below : — 

The period of incubation for duck eggs is twenty-eight days. 

They require more ventilation than hen eggs, because the egg is larger, and 
therefore more difficult to dry down, and because it has to be dried down to an 
air space proportionately larger than in the hen egg, (see Fig. 79). A larger 
air space is needed to give the larger head and bill of the duckling room" to 
work. 

Operators advise cooling duck eggs longer than hen eggs. 

* Note -If the food contains too much green stuff, the ducks eat the grain and as much green food as they want, 
leaving the remainder in the troughs. 



244 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



Ducklings generally pip the shells thirty-six to forty-eight hours before leav- 
ing them. If unable to get out themselves after the twenty-eighth day, they 
may be helped out, and will generally " make a live of it." 

366. Brooding Ducklings. — The ducklings are usually left in the 
machines for twenty-four hours, or longer, before being removed to the brood- 
ers. In small brooders not more than fifty ducklings should be kept together ; 
as many as one hundred and fifty may be started in each pen of a large brooder 
house. Temperature and ventilation should be according to instructions for 
chicks in *{ 260. For the first few days the ducklings must be confined quite 
near the heat, not allowed to get far from it. In the piped brooder houses 
they are kept near the hover by boards just long enough to reach across the 
pens placed at the desired distance from the front of the house, about a foot 
from it at first, the distance increased a little each day, until at four or five days 
the ducklings are allowed full run of the pens. Ducklings do not need heat as 
long as chickens, and at three to six weeks of age, according to the season, are 
able to do without artificial heat, and may be removed to cold houses. 

367. Feeding Ducklings. — The instructions as to methods of feeding 
incorporated with some of the rations given below, cover the ground quite 
fully. It is well, however, to impress it on the novice that ducklings must 
always have water near their food when eating, and that sand or fine grit with 
the first feeds is essential. 



(1). Rations for Ducklings. — (Rankin). — First three or four days: — 1 part hard 
boiled egg, 3 parts stale bread crumbs ; after that equal parts of corn meal and wheat 
bran, with boiled potatoes and a little beef scrap. 

(2). Rations for Ducklings. — (Hallock). — First week — equal parts of corn 
meal, middlings, crackers or stale bread, and green stuff; mix in a small handful of sand 
to each quart of food. Give occasionally bread soaked with milk for a change. Second 
we ek — 4 parts corn meal, 2 parts wheat bran, 2 parts middlings, 1 part beef scraps, — 
sand ; mix with about one-third the quantity of green stuff. At about six xueeks put ducks 
in fattening pens, and feed J meal, the remainder about equal parts of bran, middlings, 
and greens ; add about 12 per cent of the whole beef scraps. 



(3). Rations for Ducklings. — (Cooper). — First three or four days — soaked bread, 
or cracker dust, and hard boiled eggs chopped fine, mixed and fed moist. Then feed 
bran, corn meal, shorts, and a little beef scrap — increasing the amount of beef scrap as 
the ducks grow older — mix well and feed moist. Gradually add vegetable food, consist- 
ing of boiled roots, turnips, potatoes, etc., or green oats, rye, corn fodder, or clover cut 
fine as possible in a feed cutter; mix the roots and grass with the feed. A growing duck 
may be fed one part green food to two parts grain mixture to get a large frame. The 
last two weeks before marketing shorten up the green food, and give more corn. Too 
much green food makes the duck soft and flabby, and injures its sale. By fattening on 



POULTRT- CRAFT. 245 

grain the flesh is made firm, and will " stand up," as the dealers say. Fish is an excellent 
food for young ducks, but if very much is fed it taints the meat. The "beef scrap" 
duck is the best flavored, and will bring the best price. 

(4). Rations for Ducklings.— (Pollard).— At first feed — I wheat bran, k Indian 
meal, wet to a crumbly mass with milk, either skimmed or whole, but not cooked. 
Cover floor in front of hover for some distance with fine gravel or sand ; six or ei°-ht 
inches from the hover place small dishes containing food slightly sprinkled with sand 
the first time, and a fountain of lukewarm water. After all this simply keep the 
ducklings warm, and let nature work. If worth rearing they gradually get out from 
under the hover, and it is astonishing how quickly they will begin to stow away the food 
and water. Keep food before them all the time for the first three days, and water all 
night. After this they may be fed every three hours, till seven or eight days old. After 
the fifth day they may be fed 5 per cent of beef scrap instead of milk, or both may be 
given. At two -weeks make the food h. meal, h. bran, and add 10 per cent beef scraps. At 
three weeks — 3 parts each of bran.and meal, with 1 part low grade flour, and 15 per cent 
beef scraps; continue this food until killing time, not changing for any heavier or more 
fattening food. After the fifth week feed only three times a day. Feed green food, or 
not, as convenient; it is good for those intended for fattening, but not necessary for 
market ducks. 

368. Hatching and Brooding With Hens.— For the management of 
sitting hens see ff 332—235, 23S— 244. The principal faults of hens as duck 
mothers are that they usually trample too many ducklings in the nests — more 
ducklings than they would chicks ; and that hen brooded ducklings are apt to 
be affected with lice. The first fault may be partially remedied by removing 
the ducklings as fast as hatched, returning them when the hatch is complete, 
and they are stronger. For the other the hen should be treated with insect 
powder, and the ducks provided with drinking pans deep enough to allow 
them to get their heads entirely under water. The hens must be kept confined 
to coops, such as are used for hens with chicks, and the ducklings to pens built 
around or adjoining the coops. If the coops are reasonably tight and warm, 
the ducklings require brooding only about three weeks in moderate weather. 
In warm weather they pay little attention to the hen after the first few days. 
If the grower is raising chicks and scalding or baking food for them, it can 
be used for the ducklings as well; it will not be necessary to prepare food 
specially for them. Some authorities say food for ducklings must be wet 
(besides there being water to drink at hand) or they cannot swallow it. In that 
they are wrong. Coops and pens should be kept clean. 

369. Management of Ducklings After Weaning is the same, whether 
previously kept in brooders or with hens. Those intended for market will be 
grown quicker and at less cost if given only as much yard room as they need 
to keep themselves and their yard decently clean, — when the keeper docs his 
part at regular and not too long intervals. The flocks should not be too large ; 
one of the best authorities on the subject gives fifty as the largest number that 
should be kept together. The market ducks grow faster if not given water for 
swimming-. 



246 PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 

Ducks designed for breeding are better ii given more liberty from the time 
they are weaned ; but the usual practice is to run all the ducklings together in 
close quarters until they ai - e of an age for marketing, then sort out those 
wanted for breeding, give them more liberty, a grass, and, if possible, a water 
range. In sorting stock novices are often at a loss to know how to distinguish 
the sexes. After they are about five or six weeks old the ducks "quack" 
loudly when caught ; the drakes give a low sound between a quack and a hiss ; 
or sometimes make no noise at all. 



370. Selling Ducks. — The ducks produced on large farms are always 
sold dressed, and go mostly to wholesale dealers. Small growers, remote from 
the large markets, must be governed by the conditions of their markets. In 
some places it pays better to sell the ducks alive, in others to dress them ; gen- 
erally the best profit is obtained by selling direct to consumers. Green ducks 
are marketed at nine to twelve weeks old, and should weigh nine to twelve 
pounds to the pair ; the average weight is rather more than ten pounds per 
pair. The demand for them begins in April (a little) and May, and the 
highest prices are obtained in those months. Early in the season, when prices 
are high, with a tendency to take big drops, many ducks are marketed at nine 
weeks old ; later they are held longer. If not killed before the pin-feathers of 
the adult plumage start, (at eleven to fourteen weeks, the exact time being 
determined by inspection, and, by the expert, quite accurately by the general 
appearance of the ducks), they must be held for a month or more longer, until 
the plumage has grown enough to make clean picking possible. At this time 
they weigh heavier and are really much better ducks, their flesh being firmer 
and better distributed ; but, if from large stock, they will be too large for the 
general trade, and growers try to get all ducks marketed at the earlier age. 
The ducks of an age for market are sorted the day before the killing. In 
catching they are taken by the neck. If caught by the feet, there is danger of 
dislocating the legs. Those to be killed are kept without food. 

371. Killing and Dressing Ducks. — If the feathers are to be sold, the 
ducks must be dry picked. The feathers will very nearly pay the cost of pick- 
ing. For the eastern markets only dry picked stock is wanted. As experts 
say that while it requires more experience to properly dry pick a duck, that 
method, once learned, is easier and quicker, it will pay one who is dressing 
many ducks to learn and use that method, even though his market does not 
require it. Cushman thus describes the methods of killing and dry picking: — 

They are stabbed in the back of the roof of the mouth,* after which they are stunned 
by a blow with a club, or by striking the head against a post. The latter is said to be 



* Note. — As to the manner of holding the bird when making the cut, Rankin says: — "The bird should be held 
between the knees, the bill held open with the left hand, and a cut made across the roof of the mouth just below the 
eyes." McFetridge's method is: — " Take the duck under the left arm with its head in your left hand, etc." 



POULTRJ- CRA FT. 247 

less apt to disfigure them.* The picker sits beside a box (for the feathers) about level 
with his knees, with the duck across his lap. He holds its head between his knee and 
the box to prevent its fluttering and soiling the feathers with blood. In removing them 
his hand is frequently wet in a dish of water. This causes the feathers to stick to it, 
and enables him to grasp and pluck them with little effort. The wing, tail, and hard 
feathers are thrown out; the others are saved. They are usually removed by a sharp jerk 
in the opposite direction from which they lie, the skin meanwhile being drawn taut. If 
very tender the skin at the roots of the feathers is held between the fingers, and they are 
pulled out straight a few at a time. The pin-feathers are wet down to cause them to 
stick to the hand, and then caught between the thumb and the blade of a knife held in 
the hand. The soft feathers are left on the wings, and the head and neck are not 
plucked. The ducks are not drawn or headed. The wings are held in place by a string 
tied about the body. The legs are washed, and the blood washed from the mouth and 
head. The ducks are soaked in fresh water for a time, then put in ice water. If placed 
breast down the abdomen will look more plump and attractive in shape after they harden. 
The small stern bones which otherwise would stick out, are previously bent down. 

Scalding- Ducks. — Ducks are killed for scalding as described for chickens, 
in If 282. The method of scalding is described in ^[284. The plumage of 
the duck being more dense, the scalding takes a little longer. Some pickers 
wrap the scalded duck in a blanket, and let it steam a few minutes ; but this 
practice is condemned because it partially cooks the skin, thus spoiling the 
appearance of the duck. 

372. Packing and Shipping instructions are the same as given in 
^[286 — 288, but in packing ducks they should be placed breast down, in 
barrels ; and in boxes, breast down in the bottom layer, and up in the top 
layer. 

373. Exhibiting Ducks. — Ducks should require little preparation for the 
show room. Here is where the superiority of a water range is undeniably 
evident. Ducks which have always had the opportunity to keep clean are 
brighter, more sprightly, firm in plumage. Showing is very hard on ducks, 
especially on the timid Pekins. They lose weight rapidly. Some breeders 
will not show the same ducks twice in a season, and will not show at all 
except at shows early enough to leave them time to get the birds in breeding 
condition again early in the season. 

374. Diseases of Ducks. — Ducks that are at all well cared for are rarel} 
sick. Sick ones are better dead. There are no diseases peculiar to ducks, 
but ducks which run with other fowls sometimes contract diseases from them. 
Damp quarters often cause lameness. Occasionally a duck will show slight 
symptoms of cold — a frothy scum covering the eyes. They should be washed 
clean with warm water containing a little carbolic acid, and the bird treated 
for a cold (H313). If the cold is at all severe, it is better to kill the duck. 

* Note. — By preventing proper bleeding. 



2 4 8 



PO UL TR r- CRAFT. 



375. Feather Pulling is a common vice among ducklings kept in large 
numbers in small yards, and a difficult one to deal with. There is no sure 
cure. It begins when the large quill feathers of the wings are coming through 
the skin. They often cause bleeding, and curiosity and the taste of blood 
develops the vice. If taken in time, much may be done to stamp it out. At 
first both victims and offenders are few in number, and if they are removed, 
or even if the offenders only are removed, there is no further trouble. If the 
vice becomes general, about all that can be done is to feed heavier of meat, 
and try to keep the ducks busy. A few large bones with a little raw meat 
adhering, placed about the yard, will help in this. 




POULTR T- CRA FT. 249 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



Geese. 

376. Conditions of Profitable Goose Culture. — The goose, like the 
turkey, is a fowl for those who can give it room, and is generally made profit- 
able only where it can pick the most of its living. While geese cannot be 
advantageously kept in close confinement, they are not rovers — like turkeys. 
They are contented on a comparatively small range, and easily kept within the 
bounds allotted them. Geese are grazers. Grass and weeds, when they can 
be had, form the greater part of their food. Given a dry place to sleep in, 
they can live and thrive on low marshy ground suitable only for water fowls. 

Goose growing is nowhere in this country carried on as an exclusive 
business ; .nor is it carried on extensively except in a few localities near New 
York and Boston, and by a few large breeders of thoroughbred poultry. In 
most places geese are rare in comparison with other fowls, and though thev 
come in large quantities to some of the big western cities, the demand for 
them is relatively light. The fact is that outside of the eastern localities 
alluded to, most of the geese sent to market are of rather inferior quality, and 
the reputation of "goose" meat is about on a par with that of " duck" where 
really good ducks are unknown. Even in the cities where the supply of first 
class geese is best, the demand for them is small as compared with the demand 
for chickens, turkeys, or even ducks. Still the present supply of good stock 
does not equal the demand, and one situated favorably for raising geese near 
one of these markets would, if reasonably successful, make a very good profit 
on as many as he could conveniently manage. Even in favored localities 
growers generally do not think it advisable or practicable to attempt growing 
geese on such a scale as chickens and ducks are produced. In most places 
growing geese for market ought to be undertaken only when the conditions 
are such that, whatever the income from them, it is nearly all profit.* 

* Note. — It may be said here, as was said of ducks, that a good product will gradually 
create a better demand; — but geese cannot be successfully grown in confinement, as 
ducks are, and one who could give them room for exercise but not for pasture, and was 
therefore at expense in feeding them, would introduce and create a demand for good geese 
only to find that as soon as there was an evident demand, persons conveniently situated 
for keeping geese without cost would supply it at prices with which he could not com- 
pete. It will undoubtedly pay those who now keep poor geese anywhere with some 
profit, to get better geese ; and many people who do not keep geese at all could do so 
with profit. The poultryman who is crowded for room had better let geese alone. 



zso PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 

377. Profit in Geese. Growers say that geese are more profitable than 
ducks, but cannot be grown in such quantities. Goslings — green geese — 
are produced at about the same cost as ducks (6 cts. to S cts. per pound) when 
they are fed heavily ; at less cost when they have good pasture. The prices 
for good stock range from 35 cts. per pound at the beginning of the season, 
in June, down to 15 cts. later. Some growers sell the goslings at five or six 
weeks of age to fatteners. It is reported that in a series of years, one, per- 
haps the largest grower in New England, received for goslings at this age an 
average price for each year not lower than $1.09, and from that up to $1.17. 
In this case the cost of raising the goslings, aside from the labor, was not 
great ; but it is to be observed that the breeding stock from which he produced 
in one season nearly eleven hundred goslings, represented an investment of 
about $500, — possibly more. In sections where there is not much demand 
for geese, the profit is never large, even when the expense of growing them is 
small, for prices are usually low. Growing mongrel geese — hybrids of the 
wild and domestic goose — is for those -who have skill and facilities for it, the 
most profitable kind of goose raising. Mongrel geese of 12 to 14 lbs. weight 
sell readily at the holiday season for double the price of other geese. 

378. Shelters and Fences. — Geese need little shelter, a low shed to 
pi'otect them in bad weather being sufficient. A fence of almost any kind, 
wire, boards, or pickets, will do for geese. The height for the heavier breeds 
need not be gi-eater than two or three feet. For those better able to fly, the 
fences should be higher. It is sometimes necessary to clip one wing of each 
bird. 

379. Kinds of Geese. — The kinds of geese are: — common, cross bred, 
grade, pure bred, Standard bred, and mongrel. As applied to geese, some 
of these terms are not used in the same sense as when applied to chickens 
(168). 

Common geese are — presumably — descendants of early importations 
brought from Europe by settlers. They are usually rather small, hardly 
larger than good sized ducks of the Pekin, Aylesbury, or Rouen breeds. 

Cross bred is applied by goose breeders to the offspring of cross matings of 
pure breeds, and also to the offspring of thoroughbreds mated with common 
geese. 

Pure bred, thoroughbred, and Standard bred have the same signification 
as in 1 68. 

Mongrel geese are true hybrids, and sterile. They are produced by crossing 
wild and domestic geese. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



BREEDS OF GEESE DESCRIBED. 



351 



380. Toulouse Geese attain the greatest size, often exceeding the Stand- 
ard weights, which are : — adult gander, 20 lbs. ; young gander, iS lbs. ; adult 
goose, iS lbs.; young goose, 15 lbs. In color they are gray, upper surfaces 
dark gray, shading to lighter gray on the breast, body, and thighs, with white 




Fig. 92. Toulouse Geese. 
(By courtesy of Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station) 

on the belly. Bill and legs are a reddish orange. The females are good lay- 
ers, young geese laying 18 to 24 eggs in the season, and old ones 30 to 36 or' 
40. This breed is by far the most popular, though for the market it is con- 
sidered inferior to some others. They are quiet, and the best suited to range 
without water. 

381. Embden Geese have the same standards for weight as the Toulouse, 
but run smaller. In color they are white, with bill and legs orange yellow. 
They are less widely distributed than the Toulouse, and many of the Embdens 
in this country are very poor specimens. As layers they are rather poor. 
They dress better for the market than any other breed. 



382. African Geese. — Rare in most sections, but some large flocks kept. 
Weights same as for Toulouse. Color gray; upper surfaces. dark gray, under 
surfaces lighter ; neck light gray, with longitudinal dark stripe on. back ; bill 



252 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



black, with large knob at the base of the upper mandible ; prominent dew- 
lap under the throat on exhibition birds, inconspicuous or absent in many 




Fig. 93. African Geese. 
(By courtesy of Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station). 

specimens ; legs dark orange. Better layers than Embdens ; not as good as 
Toulouse. Very difficult to dress, adult birds especially so. Having dark 
pin-feathers and clown and a dark skin, do not make as attractive a carcass as 
the white breeds. 



383. Chinese Qeese in shape resemble the African, and have also the 
knob on the beak, but are smaller. Standard weights : adult gander, 14 lbs. ; 
young gander, 10 lbs. ; adult goose, 12 lbs. ; young goose, S lbs. There are 
two varieties : — 

Brown Chinese Geese — resemble Africans in color as well as other 
points mentioned. They are the most prolific of all varieties. The females 
generally lay forty to fifty eggs each in a season, and the eggs are remarkably 
fertile. It has been said that of ali breeds they pluck hardest, and look worst 
when dressed. 

White Chinese Geese — are usually smaller than the Brown. In color 
they are pure white, with orange yellow bill and legs. As layers the females 
equal those of the other variety, but their eggs are apt to be infertile. When 
dressed they rank next to the Embdens. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



2 53 




Fig. 94. Wild Geese, — in the foreground. 
(By courtesy of Chas. McClave). 



384. Wild or Canada Geese — are of a different species from the 
domestic goose, and in structure and habits more resemble swans. Stand- 
ard weights are the same as for the Chinese. Color very dark gray ; bill and 

legs black. They are often 
kept in captivity as orna- 
mental fowl, and in such 
circumstances rarely breed. 
When bred to produce 
irds for breeding mon- 
rels they are given more 
berty. One wing is crip- 
pled to prevent flight. 



385. Egyptian Geese. 

— Standard weights : adult 
gander, iolbs. ; young gan- 
der, S lbs. ; adult goose, 8 
lbs. ; young goose, 6 lbs. 

Purely ornamental fowls, handsomely colored with black, gray, and buff ; 

bills purplish, legs reddish yellow. 

386. Buying Stock. — For the goose breeder it is particularly desirable 
that stock should be purchased early in the fall. If purchased near the begin- 
ning of the breeding season, the birds may not mate satisfactorily ; and as the 
female is not likely to lay well until acclimated and accustomed to new sur- 
roundings, the better part of the season is lost even when the birds do mate. 
Old birds are more desirable as breeders than young ones. Females are said 
to be profitable up to ten or twelve years of age, and males to the age of six 
or seven years. Prices for ordinary good breeding stock are from $3 to $5 
per bird. Eggs are sold generally at so much apiece, — 25 cts. to ^octs., — or 
at so much a dozen — $2.^0 to $5. 

387. Mating — Points for the Breeder. — (See also %*fi 193 — 214). 
Standard specimens of both sexes are used in matings to produce exhibition 
stock, in all varieties of geese, and generally by growers using thoroughbreds 
to produce market stock, most of whom sell as many as possible of their best 
birds for breeding. 

In breeding geese for market only, cross breeding is usual in the localities 
where geese are grown most extensively. A mating preferred by one of the 
best growers in Rhode Island is : — African ganders with common white or 
gray geese. This mating gives goslings larger than common stock, less diffi- 
cult to pick, and more attractive when dressed than the African.* 



* Note. — Numerous crosses have been made on an experimental scale at the Rhode 
Island Agricultural Experiment Station. The results are of great interest, indicating 



254 P0 UL TR r ~ CRAFT. 

The mongrel, hybrid, geese so famous in the markets, are usually produced 
by mating wild males with domestic females, preferably dark ones, — African, 
Toulouse, or Brown Chinese. The reverse mating, — domestic male with 
wild females — is sometimes used, but the other is better, as the wild females 
lay few eggs. The wild ganders do not mate until two or three years old, 
and often will not mate the first year in captivity. Usually they mate with 
but one goose. 

How Many Females to a Male? — From one to four. Geese are disposed 
to pair. Young ganders often take up with only one goose. Older birds will 
generally mate with more. One breeder of Toulouse geese allows two geese 
to each gander. A breeder who gives his numerous matings a common range, 
mates four geese with one gander ; yards them by themselves the first season, 
and puts two or three extra ganders with the large flock. 

388. Care of Breeding Geese. — Geese at pasture require little attention. 
If kept in confinement, they must be provided with green food, not fed too 
heavily on grain, and care taken to prevent their becoming too fat, and unfit 
for breeding. They should always have water for drinking, and frequently 
for bathing. If shut up at night, the place must be cleaned at regular inter- 
vals. Geese do not generally lay until near spring, though occasionally some 
lay in January. Boxes or barrels containing straw, hay, or suitable litter, are 
placed in corners and out of the way places for nests. In cold weather the 
eggs must be removed to prevent their being chilled. It is advisable always 
to have a nest egg — not necessarily a goose egg — any kind will do. To 
break up broody geese they should be removed for four or five days, and the 
nest in which they have been laying destroyed or removed to a new position 
before they are returned. Methods of feeding do not differ much, variations 
being due mostly to differences in pasture. 



how by crossing a market breed superior to any of the established breeds might be pro- 
duced. For the ordinary breeder the wisdom of crossing except under conditions as 
stated in IT 69, or to produce something exceptional, as the mongrel goose, is question- 
able. For those who may find it advantageous to make crosses, results of a few of the 
best crosses made at the experiment station are quoted from its report : — 

" The Embden-Toulouse * * * would appear to be the best all around cross for general 
purposes, for both early and late markets, and especially for the production of large 
geese for the Christmas and New Year's markets. They are large, hardy, and when 
dressed present a fine appearance." 

" Of those here compared (African-Toulouse, Toulouse-Embden, Embden-African) the 
Embden-African seems to be next in desirability, and if goslings are sold early in the 
summer, or before they are eight weeks old, this cross would be preferable to all others." 

" The Embden-White China cross picked the easiest of these crosses, were white when 
dressed, and although small, presented the most attractive appearance." 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 25 5 

(1). Feeding Breeding Geese. — (Wilbur). — Turn out on pasture from June until 
fall; feed no grain while grass is available, then feed lightly of oats and whole corn. 
After February i, give full ration : — a mixture of corn meal, shorts, beef scraps, boiled 
potatoes or turnips in the morning; whole grain in the afternoon. 

(2). Feeding Breeding Geese.— (Newman). — They must have a pasture where 
from early spring they will live almost exclusively on green rye, clover or grass, needino- 
but little grain, and thriving well. Do not feed much corn in winter, as it is apt to get 
them too fat for breeders. Oats and barley are better. The way I feed is this : — I take 
some boxes about eight inches deep, and put the grain in them. These are placed in the 
pasture away from other fowls. One need not be careful in feeding them as in feeding 
other poultry, You cannot spoil their appetites, and by putting boxes of grain in the 
runs, they get a good run, and a light feed, and are in no danger of overfeeding. Give 
corn only in the hardest weather — when it is storming, or there is so much snow thev 
cannot go foraging. 

(3). Feeding Breeding Geese.— (Rudd).— Adult geese can be turned out to 
pasture pi-ecisely the same as cattle, and in this latitude (Massachusetts) will obtain their 
own living more than six months of the year, during which the cost of keeping them is 
simply the value of the grass consumed. Through the laying and breeding season, in 
addition to grass they should be fed twice a day with shorts and Indian meal, equal parts, 
thoroughly moistened with cold water, but not too wet, lest it produce diarrhoea ; the mass 
should be dry enough to crumble. (If stale bread can be had at reasonable prices, soak 
it and use instead of shorts). Add ten'per cent of beef scraps or its equivalent. Feed all 
they will immediately eat up clean. Supply shell liberally, and abundance of water to 
drink. 

389. Hatching Goslings. — As geese lay so few eggs, breeders usually 
keep the geese laying as long as possible, and hatch most of the eggs with 
hens. So far, hatching goose eggs in incubators has not been satisfactory. 
The hens are given five, six, or seven eggs each, according to size. After 
five or six days the eggs can be tested, and infertiles removed. The period of 
incubation is usually thirty days. It may be a little longer. When the eo-o- s 
are hatching the hens should be closely watched to prevent the goslings bein°- 
trampled upon or killed by hens that will not own them. The goslings, as 
hatched, should be given to quiet, gentle hens, or wrapped in flannel and kept 
in a warm place. 

When geese are used to hatch the eggs, they may be given about fifteen 
each. Usually they must be set where they have been laying. They will 
bear little interference when incubating. 

390. Rearing Goslings.— The goslings should be allowed to remain 
warm and quiet for at least twenty-four hours after hatching, and for the first 
few days every precaution must be taken to prevent their being chilled. By 
the time they are a week old they need no artificial heat if the weather is at 
all moderate. They do not require much care. Until strong enough to have 
full liberty they should be confined to small movable pens, which can be 
moved to new grass each day. With each pen some sort of shelter must be 



256 POULTR T- CRA FT. 

provided to protect them from sun and storm. Their sleeping places must be 
kept clean. Other items of management requiring special mention will be 
found included in the methods of feeding given below : 

(1). Feeding Goslings. — (Newman). — The first two or three days keep them in a 
warm place, and give them a little soaked bread and water. In nice weather, turn them 
out in small inclosures which can be moved every day. After a week, let them go. The 
first four or five weeks, give nothing but stale bread occasionally; but always leave them 
at liberty to get all the grass or clover they want. Do not soak the bread, as they do not 
like it so well. After five weeks, give a mash of ^ bran and \ corn meal. To fatten — 
after six weeks, feed ^ bran,£ corn meal; do not feed it sloppy. Never allow goslings to 
go to the water until iully feathered, and then only let those go which are to be kept for 
breeders. 

(2). Feeding Early Goslings. — (Rudd). — They can be fed at first on k Indian meal 
and J shorts, wet cold, and squeezed almost entirely dry. Sloppy food must be avoided. 
They should be fed as often as hungry, which will be at least every two hours — perhaps 
oftener. The important points at this stage are to keep them warm, dry, and supplied 
with food. As they grow older they need outdoor air and exercise. As spring advances 
and grass begins to grow, they can be put in movable pens on the grass. When three or 
fourweeks old (depending on the weather, condition of grass, etc.), they should if possible 
be given a wide range — turned out to pasture ; but the enclosure, of whatever size, should 
be fenced gosling proof. They should be fed twice a day with \ shorts, 4 Indian meal, 
thoroughly wet, then squeezed or pressed dry — all they will immediately eat up clean. 
The drinking vessels should never be empty. // they are to be fattened, they should be 
confined and fed less shorts and more meal, adding some beef scraps; gradually increas- 
ing the proportion of meal and beef scraps until shorts are discontinued, and the food is 
about 10 per cent beef scraps and 90 per cent meal. 

(3). Feeding Goslings. — (Cushman). — Goslings are better off if they get nothing 
but tender grass and water the first day they are put out, or before they are 48 hours old. 
The next day they should be fed two or three times, but very lightly, with scalded 
cracked corn. This is probably as good food as can be given from then on, provided 
they have at all times an abundance of tender grass to eat, and the amount of cracked 
corn fed is such as will always leave them hungry for grass. An exclusive diet of grain 
or dough, without plenty of grass, or too great a quantity even with grass, will spoil 
them — cause them to lose the use of their legs, and die. If grain is fed sparingly while 
they are young, grass being three-fourths of the food, few will be lost. To make the 
best growth they should have succulent green food before them while they can see to eat. 
If shut in for a short time morning or evening, or on a stormy day, they should have a 
continual supply of freshly mown rye, oats, clover, or corn fodder. Otherwise they will 
fret and lose much in weight. When the object is to raise show birds of great size and 
frame at maturity, it may be best to feed oat meal, gluten feed and bran liberally, as well 
as corn and grass or clover; but there will be less uniformity under this feeding, and 
more will be lost. 

391 . Marketing Geese. — Goslings of the large breeds should weigh 9 lbs. 
to 12 lbs. each at ten weeks of age ; some may weigh more. As a rule it pays 
better to market them at that age than to hold them until mature. Mongrels 
are reserved for the holiday trade, for at that time they bring more per pound 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



?57 



than any green geese but the earliest on the market bring in summer. The 
demand for green geese begins about June ist, and geese are in demand from 
then until March. 

Methods of Killing, Dressing, Packing, and Shipping, are practically the 
same as for ducks, and do not require special description. Remarks on 
Exhibiting ducks apply also to geese. 

392. About Plucking Geese for the Feathers. — Whatever may be said 
in justification of this practice, the fact remains that it is cruel. It is also ques- 
tionable whether on the whole it is profitable. To the frequent plucking ol 
geese it is no doubt largely due that so many of those sent to market are 
of very poor quality. A goose which goes through an enforced moult four or 
five or more times (some authorities (?) advise plucking every six or seven 
weeks) cannot produce meat of fine quality ; — the flesh is sure to be tough and 
stringy. As to the effect of plucking on breeding stock, Newman says : 
"Their feathers are an item worth considering, but do not pluck your geese 
twice a year and expect them to be good breeders. A goose so treated will 
not lay as early, nor as many, nor as fertile eggs, as one that is left to go 
through the changes naturally." 




PO UL TR 2 - CRAFT. 



APPENDIX. 



A Little General Information Concerning the Poultry and Allied Industries. 

The value of the poultry and eggs produced in the United States in 1S90, was estimated 
at $290,000,000. This estimate was based on census returns for that year, which, though 
not complete, and not always accurate, were the best available. An analysis of the 
statistics given will convince anyone familiar with the business that if the estimate errs, 
it is not in placing an extravagant valuation on the goods in question. The statistics 
furnished by the next census will probably be more complete and more accurate, and will 
surely show an enormous increase in products of this class. 

On the supposition that the per capita production of poultry products continues as in 
1890, the census of 1900 should show poultry products to the value of $350,000,000; but 
as there is much reason to suppose that the rate of increase of production of eggs and 
poultry has exceeded the rate of increase of population, it need surprise no one if the 
coming census shows an annual production of eggs and poultry approaching $400,000,000 
in value. 

Large as this sum is, it does not by any means represent the cost to consumers of the 
poultry and eggs produced. It is assumed that one-half of the entire product is consumed 
at home by the producers, the other half being sold to non-producers. This general 
assumption 'is based on sufficiently accurate data from counties or towns for which such 
data has been carefully collected. 

Taking the figures for 1890 : — $290,000,000 represents the value of the crop to the 
producers. If half of this is marketed there must be added to its first cost, transportation 
charges, commissions, and retailers' profits amounting to many millions of dollars before 
the total cost to consumers is obtained. 

When one attempts to give figures even approximately representing what is thus added 
to the value of these products, he is all at sea, for he has no statistical information to 
enable him to make good guesses; but when one considers how large a part of the 
business of the express companies is in handling eggs and poultry, alive and dressed; 
how many persons are engaged in rural districts in collecting and preparing these goods 
for market; how many in the cities in distributing them to consumers; — and when, 
further, one considers how every general store, grocery store, and meat market handles 
eggs, and nearly as many handle poultry also, it becomes easy to suppose that at least 
$50,000,000 is thus added to the original value of that part of the crop which goes to 
market; and it is not at all difficult to imagine that this increase may go nearer to the 
$100,000,000 mark. 

The figures so far given refer only to the value of the poultry product at market prices. 
Thevmake no account of the fact that considerable quantities of eggs and a large number 
of fowls are sold annually at "fancy" prices. This trade in pure bred fowls, and in 
their eggs for hatching purposes, is of little consequence compared with the greater trade 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 259 

in market stock, yet it is of itself a most important industry, keeping a great deal of 
money in circulation, and making or helping to make a living for thousands of people. 

One may begin to realize something of the magnitude of the interest in thoroughbred 
poultry if he considers the rapid increase in the number of poultry shows held annually, 
and the large increase of production of poultry literature. 

There will be nearly three hundred poultry association shows held in this country 
during the show season of 1899-1900. Besides these there will be displays of fine poultry 
at nearly all state and county fairs. Many of these exhibits rank with some of the best 
among the special poultry shows. 

In this connection it is not out of place to call attention to the fact that the judging of 
standard fowls at shows offers an ever widening field of fairly lucrative employment to 
those who will qualify themselves for such work, and whose work in this line will 
commend them to show managers and to exhibitors. Not only is the number of re<mlar 
poultry shows increasing out of all proportion to the increase in the number of competent 
judges, but it is becoming more and more the custom to secure the services of experts to 
pass on the merits of the fowls exhibited at the agricultural fairs. It is worth while for 
one engaging in the breeding of high class stock as a business to consider this phase of 
the matter. A reputation as a breeder is of value to — more, it is essential for a poultry 
judge; a reputation as a judge is worth a great deal to a breeder; and it is entirely 
possible for a man who is disposed to be honest to combine the two callings to his own 
profit, and to the satisfaction generally of those with whom he may have dealings in 
either line. 

It is hardly necessary to inform those at all acquainted with such matters that the 
shows are supported by the efforts of the breeders of pure stock, or that it is this class 
of poultrymen whose advertising patronage is the chief financial support of the poultry 
press. It does not,, however, seem to be so generally understood that the subscribers to 
the poultry journals are, for the most part, persons who are keeping and raising pure 
stock. With occasional exceptions those who keep and rear only scrubs or grades have 
no lasting interest in poultry literature. The readers of poultry papers generally are 
people who have progressed far enough in poultry culture to have proved thoroughbreds 
best, or whose teaching on that subject has convinced them that such is the case. 

There are now published nearly one hundred papers devoted exclusively or principally 
to poultry. Of this number about one-third have attained an age and standing which 
warrants including them in the list given on page 261. Some of the others, though too 
new to be included in such a list, give fair promise of permanent usefulness. The 
greater number are destined to an early death or a spasmodic existence; but even if the 
list had been cut down to include only the twelve or fifteen best papers, there would still 
remain such a list of papers devoted to this specialty as probably no other such specialty 
could equal. The phenomenal increase # of interest in fine stock which has occurred in 
the last ten years, has impressed everyone who has been in a position to observe it. No 
stronger evidence of it can be found anywhere than is to be seen in the growth of the 
leading poultry journals, and in the feeling constantly manifested from many quarters 
that there is room for more. 

Interesting evidences of the extension of the poultry business are furnished by the 
growth of businesses which are in whole or in part dependent upon it. Most" con- 
spicuous of these is the manufacture of incubators and brooders, a business which now 
engages large amounts of capital, and furnishes employment to a small army of 
mechanics and salesmen. Another industry of considerable magnitude is the manu- 
facture of bone cutters. A number of firms are doing a large business in the sale of 
prepared meats for poultry food, in green and dry cut bone, and in ground oyster shell. 
Still others find it profitable to produce on a large scale and advertise extensively special 
brands of mixed grain stuffs for poultry food. There are several manufacturers of grit 



260 POULTR Y- CRA FT. 

for fowls, and several firms making a specialty of clover cut ready for use. At least two 
establishments are doing a big business in the manufacture and sale of insecticides 
prepared especially for poultry keepers. 

Then there are other articles, not used exclusively by poultrymen, of which poultry- 
men are heavy consumers. Wire netting for fences, and prepared roofing and sheathing 
papers are of this class. There are also many articles manufactured in large quantities 
for poultrymen and dealers in poultry by firms making a variety of articles from a single 
kind or class of raw materials. In this category might be mentioned shipping coops, 
egg cases and egg baskets, of which great quantities are used, and such articles as feed 
cookers, hay cutters, caponizing instruments, etc. 

It is only within recent years that the poultry industry has grown to anything like its 
present proportions, only recently that its development has been along lines which 
developed what might be termed subsidiary industries, and only very recently that it has 
come to be recognized by well informed people generally as an industry of vast impor- 
tance. Great as the industry is today, it is hardly more than an " infant industry." 
Only a small fraction of the number of people who could make poultry profitable are 
doing so, and only a few of those who are making poultry profitable are getting "all 
that's coming to them." Though, as has been stated (IT 5), production and consumption 
practically balance each other, it is not hard to understand how this balance might be 
preserved though the production were much increased. Taking the figures of the census 
of 1890, and allowing $60,000,000 as the cost of distribution of the product marketed, it 
is found that the per capita expenditure of the American people for all sorts of poultry 
products : — for eggs for all purposes, for chicken and duck for all occasions, for turkeys 
for Thanksgiving, and geese for Christmas, is but $5.55 per annu?n, or 48 cents per 
month, or 12 cents per week. 




PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 2 6 1 



POULTRY PAPERS. 



American Fancier, weekly, Johnstown, N. Y. - - . $1.00 

American Poultry Advocate, monthly, Syracuse, N. Y. - - .2% 

American Poultry Journal, monthly, Chicago, 111. - - - c 

A Few Hens, monthly, Boston, Mass. - - - . #2 c 

California Poultry Tribune, monthly, Los Angeles, Cal. - — — - .50 

Fancy Fowls, monthly, Hopkinsville, Ky. - . - - .25 

Fanciers' Gazette, monthly, Indianapolis, Ind. - - - r 

Fanciers' Monthly, monthly, San Jose, Cal. - - - . I>00 

Fanciers' Review, monthly, Chatham, N. Y. - - - .c^o 

Fanciers' Star, monthly, Jacksonville, 111. - - . - .2< 

Farm-Poultry, semi-monthly, Boston, Mass. - - - 1.00 

Feather, The, monthly, Washington, D. C. - - - r 

Inland Poultry, monthly, Indianapolis, Ind. - - - .25 

Inter-State Poultryman, monthly, Tiffin, O. - - - .50 

Michigan Poultry Breeder, monthly, Battle Creek, Mich. - - .50 

New England Fancier, monthly, Yarmouthport, Mass. - - -S 

Ohio Poultry Journal, monthly, Dayton, O. - - - .c 

Oregon Poultry Journal, monthly, Salem, Or. - - .50 

Pacific Poultryman, monthly, Tacoma, Wash. - - - .50 

Poultry Chum, monthly, De Kalb, 111. - - . . ■ , 2 c 

Poultry Culture, monthly, Kansas City, Mo. - - - .^ 

Poultry Graphic, monthly, Geneseo, 111. - - _ - .2$ 

Poultry Herald, monthly, St. Paul, Minn. - - - . .c;o 

Poultry Keeper, monthly, Parkesburg, Pa. - - - - .^o 

Poultry Monthly, monthly, Albany, N. Y. - - - _ loo 

Poultry Tribune, monthly, Freeport, 111. - - - - .=;o 

Pi-actical Poultryman, semi-monthly, Whitney's Point, N. Y. - .50 

Reliable Poultry Journal, monthly, Quincy, 111. - - . c Q 

Southern Fancier, monthly, Atlanta, Ga. - - . . c Q 

Southern Poultry Journal, monthly, Dallas, Tex. - - r 

Stock-Keeper, The American, weekly, Boston, Mass. - - 1.00 

Western Garden and Poultry Journal, monthly, Des Moines, la. - .50 

Western Poultry Journal, monthly, Cedar Rapids, la. - - ,<r 



262 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



INDEX. 



Abbreviations of names of varieties, 80. 
Accompanying exhibits, 207. 
Adapting business to location, 19. 
Advertising, 195. 
African geese, 251. 
Age for weaning chicks, 1S1. 
of breeding stock : 

chickens, 151. 

ducks, 240. 

geese, 253. 

turkeys, 226. 
eggs for hatching, 168. 
Ailments of chicks, preventing, 180. 
Airing eggs in incubators, 17S. 
Alfalfa, 98. 
Alternate yards, 21. 
American Dominiques, 68. 
Poultry Association, 12. 
Standard of Perfection, 79. 
Anaemia, 212. 

Analysis of foods (table), 112. 
Andalusians, 74. 
Animal meal, 97. 

Anticipating weather changes, 131. 
Apoplexy, 212. 

Approval, selling stock on, 199. 
Artificial methods, general remarks on, 175. 
Ash, no. 

Ashes, using, on droppings boards, 127. 
Aylesbury ducks, 237. 

Balanced ration, a, 101. 
Balancing rations, examples, 117. 

use of mash in, 105. 
Bantams, care of, 217. 

description of varieties of, 220. 

profit in, 217. 
Barley, 95. 

screenings, 95. 



Barred Plymouth Rocks, description, 65 

mating, 155. 
Bed bugs, 215. 
Beef, raw, 97. 

scraps, 97. 
Beginning with eggs or stock, 90. 
small capital, 13. 

without capital, 13. 
Black R. C. Bantams, 219. 

Cayuga ducks, 238. 

Cochin Bantams, 220. 

Cochins, 71. 

East Indian ducks, 239. 

Hamburgs, 76. 

Javas, 68. 

Langshans, 72. 

Leghorns, 73. 

Minorcas, 74. 

Orpingtons, 78. 

Polish, W. C, 75. 

Spanish, 75. 

turkeys, 225. 

varieties, mating, 160. 

Wyandottes, 67. 
Blackhead, 232. 
Blood, dried, 97. 
Blue Andalusians, 74. 
Bone cutters, 60. 
Bones, dry, 100. 

green, 97. 
Boxes for droppings, 45. 

grit and shell, 56. 

nest, see Nests. 
Bowel trouble, 212, 180. 
Brahma Bantams, 220. 
Brahmas, Dark, description, 69. 
mating, 158. 

Light, description, 69. 
mating, 158. 



PO UL TR T- CRA FT. 



263 



Bran, wheat, 94. 

rye, 96. 
Bread, waste, 97. 
Breakdown behind, 212. 
Breeding ducks, points on, 239. 
geese, care of, 254. 
season for chickens, 161. 

ducks, 240. 
stock, care of, 162. 
selling, 197. 
Breeds,- comparison of, 62, 63. 
description of : 
Bantams, 21S. 
chickens, 64. 
ducks, 236. 
geese, 251. 
turkeys, 224. 
for a breeder, 84. 
city lot, 86. 
fancier, S6. 
farmer, 85. 
village lot, 86. 
to be avoided, 84. 
Brick poultry house, a, 27. 
Broiler raising not profitable as an exclu- 
sive business, 10. 
Broilers, market for, 189. 

packing for shipment, 192. 
profit in, 9. 
rations for, 106 — 7. 
weights of, 189. 
Broken bones, 212. 

feathers, plucking before exhibition, 
205. 
Bronchitis, 212. 
Bronze turkeys, 225. 
Brooder houses for pipe system, 46. 

separate brooders, 49. 
Brooders, 59. 

care of chicks in, 179. 

ducklings in, 244. 
for young turkeys, 225. 
nursery, 47. 
temperature in, 180. 
Broodiness, causing, 137. 
Broody hens, breaking up, 140. 
coops for, 56. 
sick, 140. 
Broom corn seed, 96. 
Brown eggs — where in demand, 82. 
Leghorns, description, 72. 
mating, 156. 



Buckwheat, 96. 

middlings, 96. 
Buff Cochin Bantams, 220. 

Cochins, 70. 

Laced Polish, 75. 

Leghorns, 73. 

Orpingtons, 78. 

P. Rocks, 66. 

turkeys, 225. 

varieties mating, 160. 

Wyandottes, 67. 
Buffalo or turkey gnats, 21^. 
Builders, hints to, 50. 
Bumble foot, 212. 
Business, adapting to location, 19. 

duck keeping, 233. 

locating for, 17, 18. 

poultry keeping as a, 7. 

risks in poultry keeping, 8. 

the poultry, not overdone, 5. 
as an investment, 11. 
Buying breeding ducks, 239. 
geese, 253. 
stock, general remarks on, 87, 89. 

building materials, 51. 

eggs for hatching, 90. 

land for a poultry plant, 19. 

old stock, 90. 

supplies in quantity, 100. 

Call ducks, 23S. 

Calory, definition, 111. 

Canada geese, 253. 

Canker, 212. 

Capital, beginning with small, 13. 

how much, 9. 
Caponizing, 185. 
Capons, dressing, 192. 

weights of, 1S9. 
Carbohydrates, no. 
Carbonaceous foods, definition, 110- 
Catching ducks, 246. 

turkeys, 231. 
Cat proof coop, 58. 
Cats, to keep away, 216. 
Cayuga ducks, 238. 
Cellars, incubator, 46. 
Charcoal, 100. 
Cheese, 99. 
Chicken corn, 96. 

pox, 212. 



264 



POULTR T- CRA FT. 



Chicks, colors of when hatched, 172. 

cooping, 173. 

coops for, 56. 

deformed and puny — should be killed, 
171. 

in brooders, care of, 179. 

keeping free from lice, 172. 

marking, 171. 

preventing ailments of, 180. 

rations for, 106 — S. 

rearing in confinement, 182. 

roosting coops for, 5S. 

teaching to roost, 1S2. 

water for, 173. 

weaning, 181. 

what to do when thej' are hatching in 
incubators, 179. 
under hens, 170. 
Chiggers, 215. 

Children, poultry keeping for, 15. 
Chilling, effects of — on incubated eggs, 170. 
Cholera, 212. 
Chop, corn, 93. 

mixed, 93. 
City poultry keeping, breeds for, 86. 
Clams, 97. 

Classification of poultry keepers, 7. 
Cleanliness, general remarks on, 127, 241. 

(see also, Hozv often to clean). 
Clover, 98. 

Cob and corn meal, 93. 
Cochin Bantams, 220. 
Cochins, 7°- 

C. O. D., shipping poultry, 197. 
Colds, 132, 212. 
Colony plan, 26. 
Color of market eggs, 82. 

Pekin duck eggs, 237. 
Colored Dorkings, 73. 
Colors of chicks when hatched, 172. 
Combination of fancy and market poultry, 
18. 

the profitable, in poultry keeping, 9. 
Combining poultry keeping with other busi- 
ness, 10. 
Commission merchants, selling to, 18S — 9. 
Common chickens, 61 — 2. 

ducks, 236. 

geese, 250. 

turkeys, 225. 
Comparison of branches of poultry keep- 
ing, 10. 



Comparison of breeds, general remarks, 62, 

63- 

(see also remarks in descriptions 
of varieties of fowls), 
of methods of feeding, 103. 
Complete plant under cover, 42. 
Compromise matings, 148. 
Condition and egg production, 134. 
of breeding stock, 150. 
powders, 99. 
Confinement, care of breeding geese in, 254. 
ducks adapted to, 233. 
keeping breeding stock (hens) in, 162. 

turkeys in, 224. 
rearing chicks in, 182. 

market ducks in, 245. 
Constipation, 212. 
Consumption, 212. 
Contamination, 152. 
Continuous, or sectional, houses, 29. 
Control of sex, 152. 
Cookers, feed, 60. 
Cooking food, 103. 
Cooling dressed poultry, 192. 
duck eggs, 243. 
eggs in incubators, 17S. 
Coop, cat and hawk proof, 58. 
exhibition, 207. 

roosting, for weaned chicks, 58. 
Cooping young chicks, 173. 
ducklings, 245. 
goslings, 255. 
turkeys, 228. 
Coops for broody hens, 56. 
little chicks, 56. 

shipping, exhibition and breeding 
stock, 199. 
live poultry to market, 190. 
Corn, 92. 

an all corn ration for turkeys, 230. 
broom, 96. 
chicken, 96. 
chop, 93. 
Egyptian, 96. 

fed hens lay best eggs, 142. 
Kaffir, 96. 
meal, 92. 
Cornish Indian Games, 7S. 
Correspondence, 197. 
Cotton seed meal, 97. 
Cracked corn, 93. 
Cracker crumbs, 97. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



265 



Cracklings, 97. 

Cramp, 212. 

Crested White ducks, 239. 

Crevecceur, 76. 

Crop bound, 213. 

enlarged, 213. 

inflammation of, 213. 
Cross bred, definition, 61. 
geese, 250, 253. 

breeding, 62, 154. 
Cull stock, selling, 194. 
Culling growing chicks, 183. 

in fall, 132. 

laying hens in summer, 138. 
Curd, 99. 

Damaged food, 93, 100. 

Dampness objectionable, 21, 127, 128, 222, 

235- 
Dark Brahmas — description, 69. 
mating, 159. 

nests, 54. 
Debility, general, 213. 

in growing chicks, 1S4. 
Debt, importance of keeping out of, 13, 19. 
Deformed chicks, 171. 
Depluming scab mites, 216. 
Desiccated fish, 98. 
Diarrhoea, 213. 
Diphtheria, 213. 
Diphtheritic roup, note, 210. 
Diseases, descriptions and remedies of, 211. 

general rules for preventing, 210. 

hints to guide in diagnosing, 211. 

of ducks, 247. 

turkeys, 231. 
Distemper, 213, 132. 
Doctoring, unprofitableness of, 209. 
Dominique Leghorns, 74. 
Dominiques, American, 6S. 
Dorkings, 77. 

Double matings, 155 — 6. (Note 61, 65). 
Drainage, 21. 
Dressed poultry, exhibiting, 20S. 

packing, 192. 

in warm weather, 193. 

shipping in cold weather, 193. 
Dressing chickens, 191. 

ducks, 246. 

geese, 257. 

turkeys, 231. 
Dried blood, 97. 



Drinking vessels, 55. 
cleaning, 12S. 

water, warming, 135. 
Drooping wings in young clicks, 181. 
Droppings boards, 53. 

boxes for, 45. 

how often to remove, 127. 

selling, 127. (Note). 
Dry picking poultry, 191. 
Duck eggs, care of, 241. 

growing adapted to all sections, 235. 
general remarks on, 233. 
Ducklings, brooding artificially, 244. 
with hens, 245. 

care of after weaning, 245. 

feather pulling in, 248. 

feeding, 244. 

hatching in incubators, 243. 
with hens, 245. 
Ducks, descriptions of breeds of, 236. 

diseases of, 247. 

dressing, 246. 

exhibiting, 247. 

houses and yards for, 235. 

packing and shipping to market, 247. 

profit in, 234. 

to tell sex of, 246. 

when to market, 246. 
Durra, 96. 

Earth floor, best, 24. 

renewing, 39. 
East Indian ducks, 239. 
Eaves, to make joints at, wind-tight, 39. 
Egg bound, 213. 
Egg breed, what is an, 63. 
broken in body, 213. 
eating, 141. 
foods, 99. 

production, average of, 123. 
effect of condition on, 134. 

weather on, 123. 
general remarks on, 121. 
record, keeping an, 142. 
testers, 169. 
type, 124. 

yield, factors of a good, 124. 
what is a good, 63. 
Eggs, care of duck, 241. 

chilled during incubation, 170: 
double, 141. 
exhibiting, 20S. 



266 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



Eggs, for hatching, age of, 16S. 
buying, 90. 
care of, 163. 

packing for shipment, 201. 
selling, 200. 
marketing, 187. 
miscarriage of, 141. 
misshapen, 141. 

moistening, during incubation, 170. 
nest, not necessary, 142. 
pale-yolked, 142. 

quality of, affected by food and condi- 
tion, 142. 
shipping, to commission merchants, 

1S8. 
small, 141. 
soft shelled, 141. 
testing, 169. 
watery, 142. 
winter, 123. 
Egyptian corn, 96. 

geese, 253. 
Elements, food, 109. 
Embden geese, 251. 
Enlarged crop, 213. 
Enteritis, 213. 
Excelsior meal bread, 10S. 
Exercise for heavy fowls, 125. 
how much, 125. 
what kind of, 124. 
Exhibiting poultry, general remarks on, 

203. 
Exhibition coops, 207. 
Games, 78. 
stock, general care of, 203. 

special preparation of, 204. 

Fall management of laying stock, 129. 
False or foul feathers, plucking, 205. 
Family poultry, 13. 

trade, hints on selling to, 193. 
Fanciers, breeds for, 86. 
Fancy, keeping poultry for., 14. 

poultry, combining with market, iS. 
Farm, breeds for, 85. 

flock, continuous house for, 30. 
Farmers' mistake in breeding, 147. 
Farming, duck, 233. 

poultry, 17. 
Fat, effect of feeding to excess, 11 1. 

how to reduce, 125. 
Fats, no. 



Fattening affected by conditions, 102. 

for methods of fattening, see Rations. 
Feather eating, 213. 

in ducklings, 248. 
Feathers, plucking foul, 205. 

geese for, 257. 
Feed cookers, 60. 

how much to, 104. 
often to, 104. 

mixers, 60. 

troughs, 54. 

keeping clean, 128. 
Feeding breeding ducks, 242. 
geese, 255. 

damaged foods, 93, 100. 

for special results, 102. 

grain in litter, 126. 

laying hens in extreme cold weather. 
J 35- 

warm winter weather, 136. 
spring, 136. 
summer, 13S. 

turkeys, 226. 

little chickens, 173. 

methods compared, 103. 

moulting hens, 129. 

onions, 98. 

potatoes, 9S. 

requires skill, 10S. 

science in, 109. 

sitting hens, 168. 

special — before exhibition, 206. 

standards, use of, 116. 

stimulants, 99. 

turkeys from shell to market, 228. 

when the days are short, 133. 
Fiber, digestibility of, 1 10. 
Fish, desiccated, 98. 

feeding to ducks, 245. 

scrap, 98. 
Fleas, 215. 
Floor, earth — best, 24. 

keeping clean, 127. 

renewing earth, 39. 

to keep scratching in order, 126. 
Food, cooking, 103. 

elements, 109. 

need of variety of, 101. 

requirements of fowls, 101, 109. 

value, in. 
Foods, analysis of, (table),- 1 12. 

changing, 102. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



267- 



Foods, using damaged, 93, 100. 

Foreign breeds, 79. 

Fowls, kinds of described, 61. 

compared, 62. 
Frizzles, 79, 
Frost-bite, 213. 
Fumigating, 215. 

Game Bantams, 218. 
Games, Cornish Indian, 7S. 

Exhibition, 78. 

Malay, 79. 

Pit, 78. 
Gapes, 213. 
Geese, descriptions of varieties, 251. 

houses and fences for, 250. 

kinds of, 250. 

mating, 253. 

profit in, 250. 
General purpose fowls, 63. 
Gentleness in handling ducks, 241. 

hens, 134. 
Giddiness, 213. 
Gnats, 215. 
Golden Hamburgs, 76. 

Polish, 75. 

Wyandottes, description, 67. 
mating, 158. 
Goose culture, general remarks on, 249. 
Grade, definition, 61. 
Grading, advantage of, 62. 
Green bone, 97. 

ducks, 233. 

geese, 250. 
Grit, 100. 

boxes for, 56. 

crushers, 60. 

Hamburgs, description, 76. 

mating, 160. 
Hatching, care of chicks after, 171. 

chicks in incubators, 175 — 179. 
with hens, 165 — 171. 

ducklings in incubators, 243'. 
with hens, 245. 

goslings, 255. 

turkeys, 227. 
Hawk proof coop, 58. 
Hay, 98. 

cutters, 60. 
Helping chicks out of shell, 170. 

ducklings out of shell, 244. 



Heredity, 144. 

Horse meat as poultry food, 97. 
Hospital for fowls, need of, 214. 
Houdans, description, 78. 

mating, 160. 
House, a two pen, 2S. 

continuous for farm flock, 29. 
with walk, 30. 
without walk, 29, 39. 
for town lot, 24. 
monitor top, t, 2 - 
scratching shed with walk, 37. 

without walk, 34. 
semi-monitor top, 34. 
with scratching shed underneath, 25. 
two rows of pens and passage iix 
the middle, 32. 
Houses, brooder, 46. 
colony plan, 27. 
duck, 235. 

for complete plant under cover, 42. 
geese, 250. 
turkeys, 222. 
keeping clean, 127. 
How eggs are sent to market, 1S7. 

many breeds should a poultrvman keep, 

81. 
many females to a male : 
chickens, 152. 
ducks, 240. 
geese, 254. 
turkeys, 226. 
many eggs does a fowl lay : 
duck, 240. 
hen, 123. 
goose, in descriptions of 

breeds, 251. 
turkey, 226. 
much exercise, 125. 
income, 8. 
land, 19. 

room per fowl, 50. 
to feed, 104. 

to spend in advertising, 195. 
often to feed, 104, 133, (see also. 

Ratio?is) . 
to get satisfactory stock, So. 
learn poultry keeping, 12. 
Hulled oats, 95. 

Iced poultry, packing, 193. 
Inbreeding, 153. 



2 6S 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



Income from poultry, 4. 
Incubation, period of : 

duck eggs, 243. 

hen eggs, 177. 

goose eggs, 255. 

turkey eggs, 227. 
Incubator cellars, 46. 
Incubators, 58. 

management of, 175. 
Indian Runner ducks, 239. 
Games, description, 7S. 
mating, 159. 
Indigestion. 213. 
Inflammation of crop, 213. 

liver, 213. 
Inheritance, law of, 144. 
Introducing new blood, 153. 
Insect powders, 215. 
Invalids, poultry keeping for, 15. 
Investment, poultry keeping for, 11. 
Itch, 213. 

Japanese Bantams, 220. 

Javas, 6S. 

Johnnycake, directions for making, 107. 

Joints at eaves, to make wind tight, 39. 

Kaffir corn, 96. 

Keeping chicks growing, 181. 

Kerosene emulsion, 215. 

for lice, 215. 
Killing poultry, methods of, 191, 246. 

Land, buying for poultry plant, 19. 

how much, 19. 
La Fleche, 76. 
Lameness, 213. 
Lamp, care of, 175. 
Langshans, 71. 
Lard cracklings, 97. 
Late hatched pullets, when does it pay to 

keep them, 129. 
Law of inheritance, 144. 
Lay, to make hens while brooding chicks, 

174. 
Laying hens, fall management of,- 129. 
late culling of, 132. 
selecting, 124. 
spring care of, 1 56. 
summer care of, 137. 
qualities and size, 124. 
stock, selecting breeders to produce, 150. 



Laying, to postpone, 130. 

Learning poultry keeping, 12. 

Leg bands, 207. 

Lice, 172, 214. 

Light Brahmas, description, 69. 

mating, 158. 
Lime, air-slaked on droppings boards, 127. 

and sulphur for lice, 215. 
Linseed meal, 97. 
Litter, feeding grain in, 126. 
for scratching floor, 126. 
Liver disease, 213. 
Localities suited to chickens, 17. 

ducks, 235. 

geese, 249. 

turkeys, 222. 
Locating for business, 17. 
Location, adapting business to, 19. 

Malay Games, 79. 
Mammoth White turkeys, 225. 
Market, consideration of in selecting loca- 
tion, 17. 

eggs, profit in, 9. 

poultryman, breeds for, 82. 

stock, selecting breeders to produce, 

I 5 1 - 
Marketing ducks, 246. 
eggs, 187. 
poultry : 

chickens, 18S. 
ducks, 246. 
geese, 256. 
turkeys, 230. 
Marking chicks, 171. 
Mash, value of, 103. 

Mashes, directions for making — see Rations, 
105, etc. 
elaborate compounds not necessary in, 
101. 
Materials for building, buying, 51. 

lists of for buildings, 28, 31, 34, 36, 39, 
41. 
Mating Barred P. Rocks, 155. 
black varieties, 160. 
. Brown Leghorns, 156. 
buff varieties, 160. 
Colored Indian Games, 159. 
Dark Brahmas, 158. 
ducks, 239. 
geese, 253. 
general remarks on, 154. 



POULTR T- CRAFT. 



269 



Mating Golden Wyandottes, 158. 

Hamburgs, 160. 

Houdans, 160. 

Light Brahmas, 158. 

Partridge Cochins, 159. 

Polish, 160. 

Silver Wyandottes, 158. 

Standard fowls, 154. 

turkeys, 226. 

white varieties, 160. 
Matings, compromise, 148. 
Meal, animal, 97. 

barley, 95. 

corn, 93. 

cotton seed, 97. 

linseed, 97. 

oat, 95. 
Meat breeds, definition, 63. 

foods, 97. 

horse, for poultry food, 97. 
Medicines, keeping supply of, 214. 
Methods of feeding, 103. 

making cut in killing, 191. 
Middlings, buckwheat, 96. 

wheat, 94. 
Milk, 99. 
Millet seed, 96. 
Millo maize, 96. 
Minorcas, 74. 

Mistakes, common in breeding, 147. 
Mixed chop, 93. 

feed, 60. 
Moistening eggs during incubation, 170. 
Moisture in incubators, 177. 
Mongrel geese, 250, 254. 

hens, 61, 62. 
Monitor top house, 32. 
Mosquitos, 215. 
Mottled Javas, 68. 
Moulting hens, feeding, 129. 
Moving laying hens, 135. 

sitting hens, 167. 
Muscovy ducks, 239. 

Names of varieties, abbreviations of, So. 
Narragansett turkeys, 225. 
Nest boxes, 53. 

eggs, 142. 
Nests for ducks, 236. 
geese, 254. 
turkeys, 226. 
keeping clean, 127. 



New blood, introducing, 153. 

breeds, 64. 
Nitrogenous food, definition, 109. 
Non-popular varieties to be avoided by busi- 
ness breeders, 84. 
Non-sitters, 64. 
Nursery brooders, 47. 
Nutritive ratio, hi. 

Oat meal, 95. 

Oats, 94. 

Old fowls as breeders, 90, 151. 

hens as layers, 139. 

which to keep, 139. 

stock, buying, 90. 
Onions, 98. 
Orpingtons, 77. 
Oyster shells, 100. 

Packing dressed poultry, 192. 
ducks for shipping, 247. 
eggs for hatching, 201. 
iced poultry in warm weather, 193. 
Paint, 52. 
Partridge Cochins, description, 71. 

mating, 159. 
Pedigree, importance of in breeding, 148. 
Pekin Bantams, see Cochin Bantams. 

ducks, 236. 
Picking, dry picking, 191. 

scalded poultry, 191. 
Pip, 213. 
Pit Games, 78. 
Plucking false or foul feathers, 205. (Note), 

geese for the feathers, 257. 
Plymouth Rocks, description, 64. 

mating Barred, 155. 
Pneumonia, 213. 
Polish, 75. 

Bantams, 220. 
Pork scraps, 97. 
Potatoes, 98. 
Potential energy, hi. 
Poultry business as an investment, 11. 
farming, 17. 
keeping as a business, 7. 
as an adjunct, 10. 

employment, 11. 
for pleasure, 13. 
children, 15. 
invalids, 15. 
women, 14. 



170 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



Poultry keeping', how to learn, 12. 

selling through commission merchants, 
189. 
Prepotency, 150. 

Preserving eggs not advisable, 1S7. 
Preventing common ailments of young 
chicks, 1S0. 
disease, general rules for, 210. 
Prices of (chicken) eggs and stock, 9, 98, 
198. 
ducks, and duck eggs, 239. 
geese, and goose eggs, 253. 
Profit in bantams, 217. 
ducks, 234. 
geese, 250. 
hens, 9. 
turkeys, 222. 
Profitable combination in poultry keeping, 

9- 

Prolificacy, consideration of in selecting 

breeding stock, 150. 
Proteids, 109. 
Protein, 109. 
Provender, 93. 

Puny chicks should be killed, 171. 
Pure bred, definition, 61. 

fowls, relative merits of, 63. 

Quarantining fowls, 210. 

Range for breeding stock : 
ducks, 240. 
geese, 254. 
hens, 162. 
turkeys, 227. 
young chickens, 183. 
ducks, 246. 
geese, 255. 
turkeys, 228. 
Ration, a balanced, 101. 
changing value of, 120. 
narrow, definition, in. 
wide, preferable, 117. 
Rations, changing, 102. 

different for different kinds of fowls, 

102. 
examples in balancing, 117- 
tested for breeding stock : 
ducks, 242. 
geese, 255. 
hens, 104. 
turkeys, 229. 



Rations, tested for young chicks, 106. 

ducklings, 244. 

goslings, 256. 

turkeys, 229. 
Rattling in the throat, 213. 
Record, keeping an egg, 142. 

of hatches, 16S. 
Redcaps, 76. 

Relative merits of breeds, 63. 
Renting, 19. 

Risks in poultry keeping, 8. 
Rhode Island Reds, 69. 
Rolled oats, 95. 
Roofing papers, 51. 
Roost, teaching chicks to, 182. 
Roosting coop for chicks, 58. 
Roosts, 53. 

for young turkeys, 228. 
on warm side of house, 39. 
Rose Combed Bantams, 219. 
Rouen ducks, 238. 
Round worm, 214. 
Roup, 214. 
Rumpless fowls, 79. 
Russians, 79. 

Rye, 95- 

bran, 96. 

Scalding ducks, 247. 

poultry, 191. 
Scaly legs, 216. 
Scratching, see Exercise. 
litter, what to use, 126. 
floor, how to manage, 126. 
shed house, 34. 

with a walk, 37. 
houses, suggestions for, 36. 
in front of house, 28. 
under house, 25. 
Screenings, barley, 95. 

wheat, 93. 
Sebright Bantams, 219. 
Second floor space, use of, 51. 
Selecting breeders to produce laying stock, 
150. 
market stock, 151. 
breeding stock, points to consider, 14S. 
ducks for breeding, 240. 
geese for breeding, 253. 
turkeys for breeding, 226. 
hens for sitters, 166. 
laying stock, 124. 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



271 



Selection the first principle in breeding, 

H 6 > 153- 
of fowls for exhibition, 204. 
Selling breeding and exhibition stock, 197. 
eggs and poultry, general remarks, 1S6. 

for hatching, 200. 
ducks, 246. 

exhibition and breeding turkeys, 233. 
geese, 256. 
inferior poultry, 194. 
market turkeys, 239. 
poultry and eggs to family trade, 193. 
stock by the score, 19S. 
C. O. D., 197. 
on approval, 199. 
Semi-monitor top house, 34. 
Separating the sexes while growing, 182. 
Separation the object of selection, 147. 
Setting hens, 167. 
Sex, control of, 152. 
Sexes, separating, 182. 
Shape, importance of, 14S. 
Shell, boxes for, 56. 

oyster, 100. 
Shelter for : 

geese, 250. 
goslings, 255. 
poultry house, 21. 
turkeys, 222. 
Shingles, 51. 

Shipping dressed poultry to market, 190. 
eggs for hatching, 201. 
to market, 187. 
fowls to shows, 207. 
high class fowls, 199. 
live poultry to market, 190. 
Short days, difficulty in feeding on, 133. 
Shorts, 94. 

Sick hens going broody, 140. 
Silkies, 79. 

Silver Duckwing Leghorns, 74. 
Gray Dorkings, 77. 
Penciled Hamburgs, 75. 

Polish, 75. 
Spangled Hamburgs, 75. 

Polish, 75. 
Wyandottes, description, 67. 
mating, 158. 
Sites for duck houses, 235. 

goose growing, 249. 
Sitting hens, care and food of, 168. 
Situation, general remarks on, 20. 



Size and laying qualities, 124. 

importance of, in breeding stock, 149. 
Slate turkeys, 224. 
Snow, effects on fowls, 132. 
Soils suited for poultry keeping, 21. 
Sorghum seed, 96. 
Spanish, White Faced Black, 75. 
Squab broilers, 1S9. 
Standard fowls, mating, 1^4. 

of food values, 115. 
Perfection, 79. 
Standard bred, definition, 61. 
Stationery, the breeders', 197. 
Stimulants, 99, 116. 
Sulphur and lime for lice, 215. 
Sultans, 79. 
Sumatras, 79. 

Sunlight, importance of, 21. 
Surplus stock house, 49. 
Sweet potatoes, 98. 

Tape worms, 214. 

in turkeys, 232. 
Temperature of brooder, 180. 

egg chamber, 176. 
Tested rations, see Rations. 
Testers, egg, 169. 
Testing eggs, 169. 

foods, 97. 

varieties, 82. 
Thoroughbred, definition, 61. 
Tobacco for lice, 215. 
Tonics, 99. 
Toulouse geese, 254. 
Town lot, breeds for, 86. 

cheap house for, 24. 
Troughs, feed, 54. 
Turkeys adapted to all sections, 222. 

care of laying, 226. 
young, 228. 

catching, 231. 

diseases of, 231. 

dressing for market, 231. 

feeding from shell to market, 228. 

ground suitable for, 222. 

hatching, 227. 

houses for, 222. 

keeping in confinement, 224. 

market for, 230. 

mating, 226. 

profit in, 222. 

raising artificially, 227. 



272 



PO UL TR T- CRAFT. 



Turkeys, varieties described, 224. 

yards for, 224. 
Turning eggs in incubators, 178. 
Two-pen poultry house, 28. 

Values of food stuffs (table), 112. 

Variety of food needed, 10 1. 

Variation, law of, 144. 

Variations from feeding standards, 1 16. 

Vegetable foods, 98. 

Ventilating duck eggs, 243. 

in cold weather, 135. 
Ventilation in incubators, 177. 

of incubator cellar, 46. 
Ventilators, 51. 

Wages on poultry plants, 11. 
Walk, continuous house with a, 30. 
plan for doing work from, 32. 
scratching shed house with a, 37. 
Warming drinking water, 135. 

grain, 135. 
Washing show birds, 205. 
Waste bread, 97. 
Water for ducks, 240, 242. 
geese, 254. 
young chicks, 173. 
supply for large plant, 45. 
Weaning chicks, 1S1. 
Weather changes, anticipating, 131. 
effect of on egg production, 123. 
Weight of breeding stock, 149. 
Weights preferred for market poultry, 189. 
What most breeders can do, 84. 
the markets want : 

ducks, 240, 246. 
chickens, 189. 
geese, 249, 254. 
turkeys, 230. 
to do when it snows, 132. 
Wheat, 92. 



Wheat, damaged, 92. 

screenings, 92. 
When to buy breeding geese, 253. 

stock, 89. 
Whey, 99. 
White Bantams, 219. 

Crested Black Polish, 75. 

Cochins, 71. 

Dorkings, 77. 

eggs, where in demand, 82. 

Faced Black Spanish, 75. 

Hamburgs, 76. 

Holland turkeys, 224. 

Langshans, 72. 

Leghorns, 73. 

Minorcas, 74. 

Muscovy ducks, 236. 

Orpingtons, 78. 

Plymouth Rocks, 65. 

Polish, 75. 

varieties, mating, 160. 
.Wonders, 68. 

Wyandottes, 67. 
Whitewash, 128. 
Wild geese, 253. 
Wind puffs, 214. 
Winter eggs, 123, 131. 
Worms, 214. 

Women as poultry keepers, 14. 
Wyandottes, descriptions, 67. 

mating, 15S 

Yard room, 50. 
Yards, alternate, 21. 
cleaning, 127. 
colony plan with, 26. 
for ducks, 235. 
geese, 249. 
goslings, 256. 
turkeys, 224. 
Yolks, pale, 142. 



NOV 24 1899 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



002 867 049 



i 



